Insights into Power Markets and Infrastructure Security in Africa

By Bakampa Brian Baryaguma

Kampala, Uganda.

Email: bakampasenior@gmail.com.

June 2025.

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ABSTRACT

Background and Objectives

This paper addresses the critically important and ongoing challenge of inadequate electricity access in Africa. The main research problem being addressed is: the relevancy of regional power markets and prevention of vandalism in increasing access to electricity in Africa.

Part 1 of the paper is the introduction, giving an eagle eye’s view of the importance of access to electricity. Part 2 deals with cross-border electricity trade and regulatory harmonization in Africa, underscoring the need for regional power markets in form of power pools. Part 3 addresses electricity infrastructure, focusing on vandalism and its impacts on communities, and the security strategies and policy interventions required to curb it. Part 4 gives the conclusion and makes appropriate recommendations.

Methodology/Approach

This is an action research studying the day-to-day problem of inadequate access to electricity in Africa in order to find the solution to it from the perspective or framework of regional power markets and vandalism prevention, so as to guide and evaluate the decisions and actions of practitioners in the field. The study is theoretical, relying on a qualitative approach, using a desk study method of data collection from available literature.

Key Findings

Integrating regional power markets and protecting infrastructure increases access to electricity through smart grids that optimize energy flow, minimize losses and improve efficiency, leading to cost savings and more reliable power supply.

Relevance and Implications

The study is significant for equipping practitioners in the electricity sector and the general public with greater knowledge that helps guide and evaluate their decisions and actions. The knowledge attained encourages shared approaches for increasing electricity access instead of states taking the sovereign route of self-providing in the quest for self-sufficiency.

Key words: Energy access; Power market integration; Regulatory harmonization, Infrastructure security.

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1.                  Introduction

For starters, let me point out that this study draws heavily on Uganda but does not make it a case study. This is because I, the author, am based in Uganda and I am therefore more well versed with the situation obtaining here; yet it is imperative that in the course of study a wide net is cast beyond Uganda, hence leaving the study area open to the whole of Africa.

Munetsi Madakufamba says that, “The power sector is generally understood to mean electricity.”[1] I hold the same view. So, in this paper, power markets is used interchangeably with electricity markets. Access to reliable, affordable and sustainable energy is a universal aspiration enshrined in goal 7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations. SDG 7 aims to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”[2] The indicator for electricity access under this SDG is the “proportion of population with access to electricity.”[3] But what does access mean and entail in this context?

According the World Bank Group, in its approach paper, “Electricity access is an end user’s ability to use an energy supply for the desired energy services. As such, electricity access includes both supply and demand factors.”[4] Access is monitored “… with three indicators: (i) people directly provided with access to electricity through new connections, (ii) people provided with inferred electricity access, and (iii) people provided with improved electricity service. The first indicator relies on a project’s results framework; the other two are model based calculations performed by global reporting teams.”[5]

So, why is access to electricity important? Electricity, which is one of the forms of modern energy, plays a very important role in human development; and so its inclusion in the SDGs is by no means a mistake or accidental. Put simply, “Expanding access to reliable and affordable electricity sits at the heart of development.”[6] According to Bhatia and Angelou,

Increasing reliable, sustainable, and affordable access to electricity is essential to improving human welfare and boosting productivity. Access to electricity enables transformative changes in education, health care, clean water, communication, financial services, and income generation while enhancing security and reducing poverty.

Providing access to reliable, sustainable, and affordable energy is a step in creating the conditions for a world free of poverty, increasing productivity, and supporting economic development.[7]

Crucially, access to electricity extends working hours enabling economic agents to earn extra income and creates more job opportunities.[8] For instance, speaking for myself, I am able to work late into the night, at times past midnight even, because I have electric lighting at home. But that is a luxury my counterparts without electricity, especially in villages, do not have because for them they have to move indoors and sleep soon after it gets dark at around 7:30pm EAT (19:30 GMT); and so, keeping other factors constant, such people cannot favourably compete with me in, for example, wealth creation. With these advantages, it is no wonder that electricity is alternatively known as power. It (em)powers things and people.

It is unfortunate that in Africa, inadequate electricity access is a critically important and ongoing challenge. The current population of Africa is one billion, five hundred and forty eight million, sixty five thousand, five hundred and ninety eight (1,548,065,598) people as of Monday, 16^th June, 2025 based on Worldometer’s elaboration of the latest United Nations data.[9] In a special report, the International Energy Agency said that as of 2022, 600 million people (or 43% of the total population) in Africa, lacked access to electricity, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa.[10] So, half of the continent today, “… 600 million Africans are still without access to electricity”,[11] highlighting a state of acute energy poverty.[12] The continent’s annual energy demand is estimated to be 705 terawatt hours,[13] while its energy supply, according to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report, “… accounts for only 5.9% of the world’s total energy supply. … Energy in Africa is a scarcer commodity than in the rest of the world. For instance, in many African countries per capita electricity consumption is more than a hundred-fold lower than in the richest countries. Meanwhile, two-thirds of those without access to electricity in the world today live in sub-Saharan Africa.”[14] Yet it is estimated that the highest growth in global energy demand will be recorded in Africa, especially among sub-Saharan African nations, with an average annual rate of 6.5%.[15] The need for accelerated progress toward a more electrified, sustainable and prosperous Africa has therefore never been greater.

In light of these realities, The African Climate Foundation has observed that: “A key question is how to meet Africa’s future electricity demand with sustainable, economic and environmentally friendly energy sources that fundamentally shift power systems and create a new development pathway.”[16] I believe the issue of access to electricity is central to answering this question. This paper propounds that integrating regional power markets and protecting electricity infrastructure concurrently is crucial in ensuring increased access to electricity in Africa. I submit that for optimal results, the two must move hand-in-hand, like the twin sides of a coin.

Integration significantly increases electricity access by pooling resources, promoting economies of scale and facilitating energy trade, thereby allowing countries to access power from regional sources, supplement their national grids (which traditionally consists of networked generation, transmission and distribution facilities) and share investments in large-scale infrastructure. Plus, integrating regional power markets enhances energy security and reduces costs by enabling more efficient resource utilization, reducing reliance on specific sources and promoting competition in the power sector. On the other hand, infrastructure security (which means the reliability and resilience of the power grid) directly increases access to electricity by ensuring a consistent and uninterrupted supply. When the grid is secure, more people can connect to it and those already connected can rely on a stable power supply. There is a nexus between integration and infrastructure security in ensuring access to electricity: both positively impact electricity supply and demand by guaranteeing–

one, regulatory readiness in terms of ensuring that the regulatory framework is in place to support the generation, transmission and distribution systems;

two, technical and operational readiness by developing the necessary infrastructure and technical expertise;

three, market readiness by preparing the electricity market for competition;

four, market liberalization by opening up the market to competition;

five, utility restructuring by reforming electricity utilities to be more efficient and competitive;

six, institutional strengthening by building the capacity of national and regional bodies; and

seven, streamlined governance by establishing clear command, control and accountability structures for electricity actors.

Therefore the two ­– regional power markets integration and infrastructure security – are inter-related and mutually reinforcing: integrated but infrastructurally insecure power markets cannot serve the purpose of making electricity accessible to its end users; and, equally so, market integration simplifies and enhances infrastructure security by easing the burden of curbing vandalism that destroys or degrades electrical infrastructure through putting in place shared regional and inter-state mechanisms for its prevention. Hence, as the ensuing discussion reveals, there is a correlation between the two in the sense that the presence or absence of either one increases or diminishes electricity access.

2.                  Cross-border Electricity Trade and Regulatory Harmonization in Africa

An electricity or power market is a system that enables the exchange of electrical energy, through an electrical grid.[17] It has been observed that, “A single electricity market would be an important tool in satisfying Africa’s energy challenges.”[18] Unsurprisingly therefore, Africa has a single electricity market known as the Africa Single Electricity Market (AfSEM) that was officially launched by the African Union (AU) on 3 June 2021.[19] It is the world’s largest continent-wide energy trading program meant to interconnect all 55 AU member states. The AU undertook a program on Harmonisation of Regulatory Frameworks for the Electricity Market in Africa in order to accelerate progress toward a more electrified, sustainable and prosperous Africa and accordingly eradicate energy poverty on the continent. Through this program, AU cooperated with the European Union (EU) in 2015 and together embarked on the journey to create a continental level single electricity market for Africa.[20] AfSEM leverages and clearly follows the spirit and the letter of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) whose general objectives are, among others to: create a single market for goods and services, facilitated by movement of persons in order to deepen the economic integration of the African continent; create a liberalised market for goods and services; and, contribute to the movement of capital and natural persons and facilitate investments building on the initiatives and developments in AU member states and regional economic communities (RECs).[21]

AfSEM’s Policy Paper and Roadmap - Towards a Single African Electricity Market: Roadmap 2040 report (hereinafter “the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report”) makes notable observations: “Africa has the potential to supply all its households and industry with reliable, affordable, and sustainable electricity. However, to do so, it must work together to create a single electricity market and it must use its renewable energy potential”;[22] that, “Some African countries still have neither sufficient internal transmission grids nor interconnections with their neighbours. This is not acceptable”;[23] that, “Cross-border electricity trading in Africa has received considerable attention for more than twenty years”;[24] and that electricity is not a heavily-traded good (like oil, gas and coal), with only around 3% of it being globally exported across national borders, most of it in Europe facilitated by the development of the electricity market in the European Union (EU).[25]

Cross-border electricity trade and regulatory harmonization in Africa is being championed under the aegis of the AfSEM and through regional power pools under it. The advance of globalization has resulted in countries coming together to form shared electricity markets commonly known as regional power markets or regional power pools. A regional power market refers to a system where electricity is traded across a larger geographic area, typically involving multiple countries or regions, using a common set of rules and regulations. Power Pools exist to ensure the regional integration of the power system and to achieve a regional electricity market.[26] Structurally, these markets typically involve a centralized platform (like a regional market operator) that manages the trading of electricity, sets prices and ensures the reliable operation of the interconnected grid, with the aim of facilitating the most cost-effective allocation of electricity generation resources, improving security of supply and potentially reducing overall energy costs.

In agreeing to the AfCFTA, AU member states were, among others, aspiring to establish an integrated and liberalised single market for trade in services that is progressive, open, rules-based, transparent and inclusive to provide economic, social and welfare-enhancing opportunities across all sectors for the African people.[27] I submit that electricity was one of the sectors envisaged in the agreement and that electricity trade, particularly cross-border electricity trade, was one of the trades in services envisaged therein by AU members; Bethelhem Abraham though would not agree with my submission because she says that, “Energy-related services are not yet included in the AfCFTA trade in services agenda …”.[28] But since electricity falls under the category of energy-related services, then I think those services are already (if not directly, then by necessary implication) included in the AfCFTA. That is why even regional power pools were crucial in the creation of AfSEM by validating its policy paper, the roadmap and the governance structure and in so doing, AfSEM in turn took cognizance of them.[29] My submission is further borne out by the stated aim of AfSEM which is, “… to facilitate sustainable development of the African electricity sector through the integrated continental electricity market based on the 2019 AfCFTA Agreement.”[30] The EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy also vindicates my submission when it observed in its report that, “Electricity demand will be boosted by the liberalisation of trade and this is, indeed, one of the services that AfCFTA intends to liberalise. With the AfCFTA Agreement, a common approach to the electricity sector liberalisation has been agreed.”[31]

A.                AfSEM at a Glance

Vision and Strategy

The overall vision and strategy for the AfSEM are stipulated in the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report[32] as well as the press release of the AU Directorate of Information & Communication announcing its launch. AfSEM aspires to connect, “… the African Continent’s energy strategies and action plans by harmonising regulatory frameworks and integrating generation, transmission, and distribution master plans. This will allow for the diversification of energy sources supporting energy transition, better trade and investments exchanges, and closing the energy infrastructure gaps between regions and countries.”[33] This will create a unified electricity market across the African continent by 2040, including market liberalization, utility restructuring and strengthening institutions and governance.

AfSEM will be implemented in stages in order to achieve the goals of improving trade and investment exchanges, diversifying energy sources and closing energy infrastructure gaps. Accordingly, the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report says that, “The planning and the implementation of the AfSEM should be ambitious and, at the same time, realistic”,[34] pointing out that, “The political objective is to have the AfSEM fully operational by 2040”[35] and indicates that,

Three stages in these processes can be identified. The first is the provision of basic preconditions for moving forward: governance, institutional strengthening and strategic planning. In the second stage regulatory and legal convergence towards the AfSEM needs to be achieved. In the third stage the liberalisation of the wholesale markets would take place. Exact years for accomplishing each stage can only be indicative because a great deal of preparatory work is ongoing.[36]

Objectives

The key objectives of AfSEM are:

1.                  Integration

Connecting national electricity grids to create a continental grid, allowing for cross-border electricity trade. As noted by the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

There is cross-border electricity trade between the countries in Power Pools and between some countries in different Power Pools. Unfortunately, the volume of trade has continued to be low. … There are serious barriers against cross-border electricity trade, critically the lack of power interconnectors. As a result, countries have taken expensive measures to become self-sufficient, with electricity costs in some countries being more than twice the global average.[37]

2.                  Market Liberalization

Opening up electricity markets to competition, allowing all eligible consumers[38] freedom to purchase electricity from suppliers of their choice, bearing in mind consumer protection. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report states that, “Electricity demand will be boosted by the liberalisation of trade …”[39] and that, “The liberalisation of the electricity sector will be beneficial for all African nations …”.[40] Progressive liberalization of trade in services is one of the specific objectives of AfCFTA,[41] which generally aspires to create a single market for goods and services.[42] Bethelhem Abraham observes that AfSEM leverages AfCFTA.[43] To my mind, it does that by “… facilitat[ing] sustainable development of the African electricity sector through the integrated continental electricity market based on the 2019 AfCFTA Agreement.”[44]

In Uganda, liberalization of the electricity sector is underway following the Government’s enactment of The Electricity Act, Cap. 157 (Laws of Uganda, Revised Edition 2023) (hereinafter “Electricity Act of Uganda”), the long title of which states that it is, “An Act to liberalise and introduce competition in the electricity sector”. The spirit of liberalization is encapsulated in the Act’s wide definition of electricity as meaning, “electric power generated from water, mineral oil, coal, gas, solar energy, wind energy, atomic energy or any other means”. By this definition are given multiple sources from which electricity can be got and sold on the market, hence enabling liberalization.

3.                 Regulatory Harmonization

Developing common rules and standards for the electricity sector across the continent to facilitate the integration and efficiency of the AfSEM, by covering connectivity, operation and market rules, and being able to enhance the efficient use of cross-border transmission capacities, as well as removing barriers against commercial transactions between different countries (and/or regions).[45]

In preparation for regulatory harmonization, a political agreement to create the AfSEM was reached by the AU Heads of States and Government on 7 February 2021 when they endorsed the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap at the 34^th Ordinary Session of the AU Assembly.[46]

Institutional strengthening and governance are also crucial for regulatory harmonization, requiring the designation and establishment of independent national electricity regulatory authorities, independent transmission system operators and independent distribution system operators, in accordance with Continental Guidelines. In Uganda, this had long been done by Government through enactment of the Electricity Act, the long title of which inter alia states that it is, “An Act to provide for the generation, transmission, distribution, sale and use of electricity;” and “to provide for a successor company to the Uganda Electricity Board”. Section 3 of the Act establishes the Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) as a body corporate with perpetual succession and a common seal, and may acquire, hold and dispose of moveable and immoveable property, sue and be sued in its corporate name, and do all other things as a body corporate may lawfully do. ERA regulates the electricity sector in Uganda, charged with, among others, developing and enforcing performance standards for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity.[47] Section 15 of the Act provides for the independence of ERA, stipulating that it shall “be independent in the performance of its functions and duties and exercise of its powers and shall not be subject to the direction or control of any person or Authority”, but be subject to the declared policy of the Government and, except as is otherwise provided in the Act. The law allows for unbundling of the Uganda Electricity Board (UEB) to form successor companies to assume all the duties, objectives and functions of UEB, except those to be exercised by ERA, and to take over the property, rights and liabilities to which UEB is entitled or subject to.[48] Consequently, three successor companies – the Uganda Electricity Generation Company Limited (UEGCL), the Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited (UETCL) and the Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Limited (UEDCL) – were formed and registered to carry on UEB’s mandate.[49] As their respective names suggest, UEGCL is responsible for electricity generation, UETCL for transmission, and UEDCL for distribution. Each of them is separate and distinct from the others; and are independent of each other in the performance of their work, even from their regulator, ERA, except as otherwise provided by law.

4.                 Attracting Investments

Creating an attractive environment for investment in the electricity sector. It is noted by the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report that, “Investment in electricity infrastructure is the key to success. Reliable electricity transmission infrastructure ensures that electricity can be transported across Africa without major physical constraints.”[50] Further, the report states that,

To keep pace with growing demand, investment in the electricity sector needs to be considerably increased. Some USD 5.9 trillion of capital investment will be required before 2065. In sub-Saharan Africa alone, investment needs to average at least USD 45 billion a year. Half of all investment should be dedicated to the expansion, reinforcement, and maintenance of grids, including mini-grids and cross-border infrastructure.

Today, most electricity sector investments in Africa are underpinned by public funds. Given the financial constraints on electricity utilities and the limited fiscal room for manoeuvre of governments, private sources of finance will be essential for investments in the electricity sector. Four areas are crucial in financing investments in the electricity sector: the better financial performance of electricity utilities; improvements in procurement frameworks; more sustainable business models in the decentralised sector; and the strengthened provision of long-term finance.[51]

5.                 Infrastructure Development

Investing in transmission and distribution infrastructure to connect the continent. According to Munetsi Madakufamba, the challenge of power shortages is itself an opportunity for new investment.[52] The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report notes that, “The expansion of generation capacity should be accompanied by a continuing focus on transmission and distribution systems for reducing power outages. As a matter of fact, inadequate investments in generation and transmission infrastructure over many years is officially cited as having historically contributed to power shortages obtaining in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region and for the slow pace of recovery from the situation.[53]

Many African businesses suffer from electricity disruptions on an average of 56 days a year, costing them 5-6 percent of revenues. Individuals are also affected by power disruptions probably as much as are businesses. Speaking for myself, I lose a lot of working hours doing my research work at home whenever electricity goes off. For example, in the course of writing this paper, electricity went off every day from about 10:00pm to about 11:00am the next day, for three consecutive days on Wednesday, 7^th May, 2025 to Friday, 9^th May, 2025. In other words, electricity was off in the nights of Wednesday, Thursday and Friday and then in the mornings of Thursday, Friday and Saturday. After this, on Saturday night our shared electric meter got spoilt and we were plunged into a total black-out, during which I had to improvise by going to Makerere University to look for a power source to be able to continue writing and finish my paper. But of course I could only work during the day since I do not sleep in the university. It went off again at regular intervals on 14^th, 15^th and 16^th June towards the deadline for submission. As you can imagine, this power outage was very demoralizing and inconveniencing to me. It slowed me down significantly, causing me to submit the paper later than I otherwise wished.

6.                 Promotion of Renewable Energy

Promoting the use of renewable energy sources to achieve 100% electricity access by 2030. According to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

Solar photovoltaics could be a key source of electricity, as Africa has 40% of global potential solar resources. Africa’s estimated renewable power potential is: 10 TW of solar; 350 GW of hydro; 110 GW of wind; and 15 GW of geothermal. This potential should be used. Already by 2030, the share of renewable electricity in the generation mix is expected to grow to 50%, with wind and hydro capacities reaching 100 GW and solar capacity over 90 GW.[54]

7.                 Capacity Building

Strengthening the skills and capacity of the electricity sector workforce. One of the lessons of the COVID-19 crisis is that policymakers need to pay attention to the welfare of skilled personnel in order to ensure that power systems remain reliable.[55]

Governance Structure

In terms of governance, the African Union Commission in a press release announcing the launch of the AfSEM said that AfSEM’s implementation will be supported by a Continental Power System Masterplan currently being developed by the African Union Development Agency (AUDA-NEPAD) to harmonize regulatory frameworks across various regions.[56] Additionally, the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report envisages a governance structure comprising a Ministerial Council, Oversight Committee, Strategic Planning Coordination Unit and an Electricity Forum.[57] Briefly, these structure’s roles are–

The Ministerial Council takes strategic decisions, issue continental guidelines for AU Member States and regional economic communities on the establishment and functioning of the AfSEM. The Ministers compose a specialized technical committee known as the Specialised Technical Committee on Transport, Transcontinental and Interregional Infrastructure, Energy and Tourism (STC-TTIIET). On 12 January 2021, this Committee adopted the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap.[58]

The Oversight Committee should prepare the work of the Ministerial Council; and would in that role, discuss strategies, policies and plans related to the AfSEM and propose related decisions to the Sectorial Technical Sub-Committee (STSC) on Energy of the STC-TTIIET for adoption under African Union procedures.

The Strategic Planning Coordination Unit should develop strategies, policies and plans relating to the AfSEM and forward them to the Oversight Committee. The Coordination Unit ought to maintain an active repository of Master Plans, Strategies and Policies related to the AfSEM; and to monitor and evaluate its operation.

The Electricity Forum needs to serve as the plenary meeting body for stakeholders. Its role would be to review progress in meeting objectives and to agree on recommendations for the further development of the AfSEM.

B.                 Regional Power Pools

AfSEM is rooted in regional power pools that are modeled along regional economic communities (RECs) of Africa. According to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report, as part of their legal and regulatory development, all RECs should have: power pools as their specialised institutions, founded on the basis of inter-governmental and inter-utility memoranda of understanding; regional regulators as their specialised institutions, founded on the basis of inter-governmental and inter-regulator memoranda of understanding; regional electricity action plans prepared as the national electricity market action plans are aligned at the regional level; and regional network codes and 10-year transmission network development plans agreed upon.[59] According to the AfCFTA,

“RECs” means the Regional Economic Communities recognised by the African Union, namely, the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA); the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD); the East African Community (EAC); the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS); the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS); the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC);[60] (Emphasis is in the original.)

In this vein, the RECs have established five regional power pools through which cross-border electricity trade is conducted. In the words of Bethelhem Abraham, “Regional electricity trade occurs through the five regional power pools established by the regional economic communities (RECs) in Africa which are Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP), Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), West African Power Pool (WAPP), Central African Power Pool (CAPP) and Maghreb Electricity Committee (COMELEC).”[61]

The formation of regional power pools is necessitated by technical inefficiencies in power generation that make it financially unfeasible for states to generate electricity on their own because their energy markets are too small to take advantage of efficiencies from large-scale electricity production, resulting in full economies of scale. Technical inefficiencies cause states to continue consuming more electricity than they produce, requiring them to adopt a coordinated regional approach underpinned by regional consensus to guarantee security of electricity supply to all participating countries.[62] Putting regional interests ahead of narrow national interests dissuades them from taking a nationalistic approach as they seek self-sufficiency, which may in effect be a more expensive route to security of supply.[63]

Although none of the power pools is yet at the point where the arrangements are fully competitive, they, particularly the WAPP and SAPP, have facilitated significant cross-border exchanges of power, with a number of countries, such as Botswana and Niger, relying on imported power; and others, such as Nigeria and Mozambique, being major exporters of power. Resultantly, it is through regional power pools that cross-border regulatory harmonization is primarily undertaken before reaching AfSEM at the continental level. It follows therefore that they are very important for achieving AfSEM’s strategic vision and mission of advancing Africa’s integration agenda through well interconnected and efficient national, regional and continental electricity markets that will further human development, enhance economic prospects of the continent leveraging the AfCFTA, underpinning productive transformation, industrialization, digitalization and job creation.[64] The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report gives reason to hope for the best in this regard optimistically stating that,

There are potentially significant savings from increased electricity trade over existing interconnections. The integrated operation of Power Pools lowers the need for capacity reserve and enhances system reliability. It also reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels. For instance, full SAPP integration would result in cumulative savings of over USD 42 billion in investment and operating costs for the region by 2040, compared with the business-as-usual scenario in which each country implements its own national power system development plan. Moreover, there are, for the period 2020-2030, encouraging prospects for EAPP to potentially gain USD 7.6 billion from integration based on existing and already agreed transmission links. Deeper integration, which would require better generation and interconnection plans at the regional level, could increase the benefits to USD 18.6 billion. Furthermore, in the eastern Nile basin region, electricity trading scenarios outperform a scenario that assumes no such trading. They lower, in fact, system costs by 4.5-7.2%, improving energy security and mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. There are long-term economic benefits to be had through dispatch and trade optimisation over existing and committed interconnections. This is the case even before scaling up renewable energy generation and new cross-border transmission capacity. [65]

C.                Cross-border Regulatory Harmonization

Munetsi Madakufamba identified cross-border power trading as one of the even more complex challenges of a technical and political nature which, going forward, may continue to hamper speedier and full recovery from power shortages.[66] Close attention must therefore be paid to harmonization of regulation of cross-border electricity trade.

The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report notes that the success of the single electricity market demands the interconnection of the national and regional electricity markets and the strengthening of transmission grids;[67] and that harmonization of the electricity markets in Africa should be achieved at all three levels – national, regional and continental;[68] for which reason, construction of internal transmission links and interconnectors is of the highest importance in establishing them.[69] The report, however, observes and actually warns that this is a matter of great “Complexity”, stating that,

Integrating power systems is a complex issue. Power systems are very different in size, institutions and characteristics (grid frequency, voltage, grid state, etc.). Integrating power systems demands careful planning and a strategy for bringing systems closer over time and for facilitating deeper integration. The key success factors are: a common legal and regulatory framework; the harmonisation of the operational framework; the creation of an independent Regional Regulator; the creation of a regional electricity market; and increased cross-border transmission capacity. Establishing an efficient regional electricity market requires both “hardware” (transmission grids, generation plants) and “software” (harmonised rules), as well as adequate governance.

Integrating power systems brings big opportunities for development. But its implementation will prove a significant challenge. Achieving the full potential of the AfSEM will depend on putting in place significant electricity policy reforms and on attracting substantial investments. It will be a step-by-step process at the national, regional and continental levels.[70]

The report identifies basic principles and common rules necessary for establishing, operating and developing a viable single electricity market in Africa. Although the report studied and presented those principles and rules within the specific context of the AfSEM, I submit that the same apply to regional electricity markets generally and shall adopt them as such for purposes of this paper.

1.                  Basic Principles Necessary for Creating an Effective Single Electricity Market

(a)              Commitment, coordination, sovereignty

In the report’s own clear and unambiguous words,

The establishment and the operation of AfSEM depend on the political will and commitment of AU Member States. Indeed, a strong commitment to integration is key to success. This includes working together to strengthen electricity supply security, to promote interconnections, to develop electricity markets and to promote renewable energy sources. This does not affect the rights of AU Member States to choose their energy sources or their ability to determine the conditions for exploiting their energy resources. Creating the AfSEM does not diminish the energy sovereignty of AU Member States; it enriches it.[71]

(b)              Gender mainstreaming

The development of the AfSEM should take gender mainstreaming into account by incorporating gender considerations into institutional frameworks, networking and knowledge sharing, capacity building and clean energy interventions, so as to be able to benefit both men and women since they have different needs and living conditions and circumstances, including unequal access to resources.[72] In particular, there is need to build and strengthen capacities for gender mainstreaming in energy policies and projects; support the development of gender-sensitive policies; promote knowledge management; create awareness and advocacy on gender and energy issues; and implement gender-responsive investment and business promotion in sustainable energy development.[73]

(c)              Realizing sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development is a principle in the realm of international economic law, which was popularized by the Brundtland Commission in its report entitled Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future.^[74] This report believed that sustainable development means humanity being able, “… to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”[75] The concept is materialized in SDG 7 of the United Nations that aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.[76]

According to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report, “The AfSEM is an efficient tool for achieving the Paris Climate Agreement goals and the UN Sustainable Development Goals.”[77] This report takes the view that development is sustainable if it provides access to modern electricity services and not only focuses on grid-based solutions but also takes into account the deployment of off-grid technologies, such as mini-grids, to speed up providing electricity to all users.[78] It is on this that the report states the design of the AfSEM should be firmly based.

(d)              Strategic objective

Regional electricity markets should be strategic in nature. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report says that, “The AfSEM is a goal and a tool at the same time”,[79] whose “… strategic objective is to establish well-interconnected and efficient national, regional, and continental electricity markets.”[80] In the report’s view, this strategic objective should promote provision of unhampered electricity flows across borders, fostering the conditions for peace, stability and economic growth; facilitating necessary investments in generation, transmission, and distribution; facilitation of solutions for current needs while providing a pathway for medium and long-term strategies by maximising the use of existing infrastructure, giving price signals for new investments, and improving the performance of the electricity sector in each AU Member State; good governance taking into consideration current achievements in the electricity sector as well as the already established institutional structure, in a step-by-step process with the full involvement of institutions, with support for the regions with the most challenges; electricity markets that work in the interests of consumers, providing reliable electricity services with reasonable and affordable prices as the rule; creation of a stable, transparent, and predictable environment for private investment; creating the preconditions for the improved performance and operational efficiency of the electricity supply industry; enhancing the use of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency frameworks; taking into account the need to accelerate electricity access for all; and designing electricity markets built around the continuity of electricity service and the avoidance of outages.[81]

2.                  Common Rules on the Organization and Functioning of a Single Electricity Market

(a)              Harmonization of electricity discourses

The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report states that the electricity market needs to move from limited coordination to being truly operational and supra-national, emphasizing the need for interactions that are subject to well-defined and commonly-agreed rules.[82] That the development of a harmonized market “… requires: the alignment of electricity policies, legislation and regulation at the national level; the establishment and development of Power Pools and Regional Regulators at the regional level; and interconnection and operation of the regional electricity markets at the continental level.”[83]

Much as regional power pools have been established on the continent, they are at very different stages of development, both technically and institutionally. For example, while SAPP formed a regulatory body as early as 2002 called Regional Electricity Regulators Association of Southern Africa (RERA) that regulates cross-border power trading in Southern Africa, harmonises the regulatory framework and provides a conducive environment for investment in the region's power sector,[84] the EAPP on the other hand is yet to establish a functional regulator. In October 2024, the Chief Executive Officer of Uganda’s Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA), Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako, said that following a Cabinet decision, ERA and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Uganda signed a Country Hosting Agreement on 7 February 2024 to host the Secretariat of the Independent Regulatory Board (IRB) of the Eastern Africa Power Pool in Kampala.[85] Equally notable is that the political process is most advanced in the WAPP, supported by political agreements at the head of state level through ECOWAS.

(b)              Fair and non-discriminatory regulatory framework

The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report guides that,

Mechanisms of regulatory oversight should be fair and non-discriminatory. The regulators, i.e. the national electricity regulatory authorities and Regional Regulators, ought to be: transparent in their decision-making; deliver their decisions in a timely way; undertake good levels of stakeholder engagement; and use best-practice techniques of regulation. They would ideally be independent and have the means to ensure non-discriminatory network access; promote competition; and provide incentive regulation of electricity networks. Regulations need to be able to provide market participants with transparent and sufficient market information.[86]

(c)              Market liberalization

Liberalisation of the markets is,

The most radical change relat[ing] to opening up the electricity markets to competition, firstly in the wholesale and then in the retail market. Customers should be able to choose their supplier. Barriers against entry into the national (and/or regional) electricity markets ought to be reduced.

The opening of wholesale markets should be accompanied by efficient and effective market surveillance and enforcement system. The oversight model would provide data collection and market surveillance at the continental level and investigation and enforcement at the national one. The decentralised framework for cooperation amongst multiple stakeholders would provide for integrity and transparency in the wholesale market and would increase the efficiency of the market. An efficient market outcome sends, of course, sound investment signals. Abusive practices need to be explicitly prohibited. But prohibition should be accompanied by comprehensive monitoring and enforcement powers.[87]

(d)              Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction from access to grid is chiefly evaluated by connectivity i.e. measuring access by counting the number of electricity connections. But that is not enough: it is further gauged by assessing the extent to which the grid mitigates the risk of affecting availability,[88] accessibility,[89] affordability[90] and reliability[91] of electricity supply. As a rule, therefore,

The electricity markets need to provide for reliable and affordable energy services for households and industry. Their design should incentivise energy efficiency and investments in renewable energy sources, as well as providing access to new customers. Particular attention should be given to the affordability of electricity for households. Universal service would be the ideal here. The particular role of consumers in demanding response and in installing their own generation (and/or storage) capacity ought also to be promoted.[92]

(e)              Non-discriminatory access to electricity networks

Access to electricity networks should be open and market-based.[93] Consistent national and regional market rules and specific rules encouraging non-discriminatory access to cross-border transmission capacity are required if regional electricity markets are to achieve their ultimate goal of an increasingly interconnected African electricity market with convergent wholesale electricity prices across the continent.[94] This means that the markets, “… should be based on: the unbundling of transmission and distribution networks from electricity supply and generation; on providing market access to third parties; and on ensuring competition in the wholesale and retail markets.”[95] It is necessary to establish an optimal network expansion mechanism with particular attention on the full use of cross-border transmission capacity such that electricity flows from low to high price areas.[96]

(f)               Participation of electricity utilities

According to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

It is essential that African electricity utilities are prepared for participation in the electricity market, as they will be the key players in the AfSEM. These utilities should be able to function under market conditions and competitive relations. That brings substantial structural and business operation changes to the electricity utilities. Improvement in accountability, reduction of technical losses and improvements in the efficiency of payment systems are just some of measures that would be needed.[97]

(g)              Plan-based investment approach

The reality on ground is that regional markets operate in a time when many African states have ambitious national targets for installed generation capacity. This means that the markets should be “smart” by taking a plan-based investment approach in the electricity sector, in the sense that, “Whole power system dynamics need to be considered and avoid being fragmented in a project-focused approach.”[98] A plan-based investment approach, as opposed to a project-based one, results in considerable savings and requires comprehensive integration of generation, transmission and demand as a strategic necessity.[99]

D.                Opportunities and Challenges of Regional Power Market Integration in Africa

AfSEM and the regional power pools under it comprise important electricity markets, presenting immense opportunities, although they also pose formidable challenges too, as analyzed and traversed in the sections immediately below.

1.                  Opportunities in Power Market Integration

A good and fit for purpose electricity system is measured by the extent to which it connects as many people as possible and by its ability to mitigate the risk of affecting availability, accessibility, affordability and reliability of electricity supply. An integrated power market being an electricity system itself, the opportunities it presents are to be assessed by how far it delivers on these yardsticks. Regional power markets encompass a broader area than a single national grid, allowing for the exchange of electricity between different regions or countries. This brings with it many benefits such as–

(a)              Competitive electricity prices

Regional power pooling leads to lower electricity prices for consumers. As succinctly observed by the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

The development of the AfSEM would help to create better prices for consumers. Access to other electricity markets allows countries: to reduce the installed generation capacity needed to meet peak demand; to share their reserve capacity; and to better respond to seasonal imbalances. Regional capacity markets can play an important role in coordinating investment plans for a capacity increase at the regional level. Coordinated planning would help to lower capital investments in meeting future demand. In SAPP’s 2025 plan to add 57 GW capacity, USD 48 billion savings are ‘up for grabs’, compared with a national-based approach.[100]

But the report notes that if competitive prices for consumers are to be attained, “AU Member States must minimise differences in their wholesale market prices. If there are strong price differentials, additional cross-border transmission capacity should be considered.”[101]

(b)              Boosting electricity demand and access to electricity

The World Bank Group, in its very recent (19 February 2025) report, stated that,

More than four out of five people worldwide without electricity access live in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the share of the world’s population without access to electricity fell from 13 percent in 2015 to 9 percent in 2022, there were still 688 million people without access in 2022. Of these, 588 million (85 percent) live in Sub-Saharan Africa. The share of the population without access is 49 percent compared with about 7 percent in other Regions.[102]

Table 1 – Population without Electricity Access, by World Regions

	Share of Population Without Access to Electricity (%)		Population Without Access (millions)
Region	2015	2022	2022
Sub-Saharan Africa	61	49	588
East Asia and Pacific	3	2	42
South Asia	13	2	33
Middle East and North Africa	3	3	13
Latin America and the Caribbean	3	1	9
Europe and Central Asia	1	0	0
All	13	9	688

Source: World Bank Group Approach Paper, 19 February 2025.

Reduced and affordable electricity prices boost demand for power and in turn enhance access. As noted by the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report, “The development of efficient regional generation and transmission projects would support the extension of electricity access. The development of an integrated power system would, likewise, facilitate electricity access and considerably increase the speed with which customers are connected. For instance, the recently proposed Tanzania-Zambia interconnector would enable 21,000 new customers to be connected.”[103] Increased demand for and access to electricity will help achieve AfSEM’s goal of giving “African households, businesses, and industries more secure, sustainable, reliable, competitive, and affordable energy.”[104]

(c)              Cost-effectiveness

The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report cautions that, “Network losses should … be substantially decreased to below 10% to increase the economic efficiency of the electricity sector.”[105] By pooling generation resources across a larger region, regional markets can utilize the most economical sources of electricity, potentially lowering costs for consumers and utilities. The interplay of forces of demand and supply determine that the most efficient and cost-effective electricity generation resources are used hence motivating increased healthy competition among power pools; and the resulting efficiency reflects in terms of delivering the electricity to consumers at the lowest possible cost, ultimately leading to lower electricity prices for consumers.

(d)              Improved security of supply

There is need for unconstrained electricity transmission across Africa. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report states that, “For electricity supply security, peak demand would need to be met through domestic generation capacity and through electricity imports. Increasing the nominal transmission capacity of interconnections would, in many cases, be a more cost-efficient option, especially with increasing generation capacity coming from renewable energy sources.”[106] Interconnecting power grids improves security of supply in regions and the continent as a whole in many ways, including:

i)                   easing cross-border electricity trade by encouraging the integration of national and regional energy plans to create an efficient and reliable continental electricity system.

According to the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

The easy transference of electricity contributes to a more sustainable electricity supply, as renewable energy sources can be more easily integrated into highly interconnected systems and markets. It also ensures the supply of electricity at the lowest possible cost for society and consumers. Examples from other continental markets demonstrate that in many cases investments in cross-border transmission capacity provide substantial savings in generation investments. Development of the appropriate transmission infrastructure enhances competition within the electricity sector and, as a result, increases the competitiveness of the sector as a whole. This benefits the wider economy, by enhancing economic growth and employment.[107]

ii)                reducing the risk of power outages or shortages.

iii)              allowing for the sharing of resources by providing a mechanism for allocating scarce resources in generation, transmission and distribution capacity to meet consumer demand in a cost-effective manner.

In SADC, for example, SAPP facilitates cross-border power trading and the trading allows countries to buy and sell surplus electricity through an existing network of transmission lines and relay substations, thus enabling the exchange of power from those countries that are energy resource-rich to those that suffer energy vulnerability.[108]

iv)              ensuring a more efficient, reliable, sustainable and resilient supply of electricity by driving innovation in electricity generation through promoting the use of renewable energy technologies, encouraging the development and adoption of new technologies and encouraging the diversification of energy sources.

The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report argues that regional power markets are accelerators for cleaner, greener solutions: “Stronger power system integration would help renewable energy sources to be better used. Reaching regional renewable energy targets is more cost-efficient than each country going its own way. A fully renewable power system is technically feasible, economically viable, and the most efficient and most job-rich option for some African regions,” says the report.[109]

(e)              Stimulating economic growth and development

It is arguably axiomatic that, “Integrating power systems brings big opportunities for development.”[110] Regional power markets can stimulate economic growth and development by facilitating the transfer of electricity to where it is needed, supporting industrial growth, trade and other economic activities. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report observes that, “Rapid technological development continues to strongly influence the functioning, the nature of and the need for electricity network infrastructure. This creates new opportunities for electricity generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption.”[111] By stimulating economic growth and development, regional power markets create a more attractive trade and investment climate that enhances the economic prospects of Africa.

(f)               Promoting resilience

Deeper and tighter integration especially through stronger interconnections with neighbouring countries produces a flexible, stronger and wider network that promotes resilience by providing more efficiency in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and giving the power system a greater ability to reduce the impact of major droughts, resulting in increased electricity demand, providing reliable electricity services and reducing the potential for power crises arising from droughts.[112] It is argued that, “In emergency situations, [electricity] infrastructure enables solidarity between neighbouring countries, while ensuring cross-border electricity supplies. Africa needs not just new power lines. The grid should be “smart.” They need to be able to accommodate renewable energy, to be able to support the implementation of the “energy efficiency first” principle and to be able to respond to changing supply-and-demand patterns.”[113]

Africa being strongly affected by climate change which affects water availability and year-to-year variability,[114] deeper and tighter integration of electricity networks has helped countries, particularly in Southern Africa cope with power shortages during droughts by allowing for the sharing of power resources, enabling those with surplus generation to supply those facing shortages, hence mitigating the impacts of hydro-dependent power generation during periods of low rainfall.

(g)              Streamlining governance and harmonizing regulatory frameworks

The creation and functioning of sound regional power markets depends on good governance, in the first place. Considering that some electricity networks (notably grid) are natural monopolies because it is not feasible to build multiple networks competing against one another,[115] as a consequence thereof regional power markets are typically governed by a framework of rules and regulations that define how electricity is traded, how the grid is operated and how disputes are resolved. Hence, by default, they streamline governance and harmonize regulatory frameworks by facilitating regional inter-government intervention to standardize electricity regulations to create a more level playing field for investors and promote fair trade.

2.                  Challenges in Power Market Integration

Regional power market integration faces several key challenges that are technical, economic, regulatory and institutional in nature and a host of others that do not necessarily fall under these broad categories, as traversed below.

Technical Challenges

(a)              Lack of technical capacity

There is technical capacity deficit at regional and national levels. Munetsi Madakufamba says that, “Notable competences lacking are in general planning, engineering, project packaging and financing, and project management while technologies that are lagging behind are those in electric energy and power systems, and energy in general.”[116]

(b)              Incompatible grid systems

There may be technical disparities in grids such that different countries may have varying grid voltage and frequency standards, requiring costly upgrades and standardization efforts for interconnection.

The problem of incompatibility in grid systems is being addressed incrementally as the AfSEM itself progressively develops and steps taken on it. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report stipulates the requisite stages as follows­–

The AfSEM should be developed through a progressive strengthening and integration of the regional electricity markets in which the national electricity markets operate. In the first stage, national systems ought to be physically strengthened internally and interconnected across borders so that bids and offers (volume and price) can be made to neighbouring systems. This requires technical coordination and some degree of harmonisation in security and reliability criteria. In the next stage (shallow-market integration), interconnected national systems would be coordinated. This requires common technical and economic rules and some harmonisation of system operations. In the third stage (deep-market integration), ancillary service markets and capacity markets need to be harmonised. This requires the joint planning of transmission network expansion. From the outset, this process would be supported by continent-level strategies.[117]

The report outlines the steps taken and those to be taken in implementing these stages, thus–

The work necessary for creating the AfSEM has already started with the drawing up of the “Harmonised Continental Regulatory Framework in the Electricity Sector.” The central feature of electricity sector reforms over recent decades has been the creation of independent national electricity regulatory authorities in many AU Member States. These have been put in place to regulate and oversee the electricity market and to look after consumer interests at the national level. Several Power Pools and one Regional Regulator have been created at the regional level.

The second ordinary session of the STC-TTIIET adopted, in April 2019 in Cairo, the “Guidelines and Monitoring Plan for Continental Transmission Tariff Methodology” for supporting the implementation of the Harmonised Regulatory Framework. The STC-TTIIET requested AUDA-NEPAD to develop the Continental Transmission Network Master Plan based on the Power Pools’ strategic plans.

It also asked AFSEC to be member of the steering committee regarding this project, given its mission to promote, through its members and Technical Committee 8 as a mirror committee of IEC, all related to standardisation in the fields of electricity (i.e. development of standards on overall system aspects of electricity supply, which encompasses transmission and distribution networks, in cooperation of with power quality companies, national standard bodies, Regional Regulators, Power Pools, etc.).

The above are important steps in strengthening the regional electricity markets and in creating a continental one.

The STC-TTIIET’s Cairo Declaration requests the AUC, together with all relevant pan-African continental and regional institutions, to operationalise the electricity market in Africa. The creation of the AfSEM will take time. Missing electricity infrastructure and insufficient regulatory convergence at the regional and continental levels are the key challenges. The political will of AU Member States and governance mechanism should provide solutions. The opportunities provided by the AfSEM are too important to squander.[118]

(c)              Outdated infrastructure

Aging transmission and distribution networks can limit the reliability and capacity of the integrated grid, potentially hindering uptake even after expansion. This concern was raised by African leaders who, at a regional energy summit held in Tanzania in January 2025, spoke of how aging and poorly maintained infrastructure, deteriorating network with overloaded transformers and distribution feeders, have limited energy expansion and evacuation of available generation capacity on the continent and held back development in areas like healthcare, education, job creation and digital inclusion.[119]

(d)              Wheeling charges

Disagreements on how to fairly distribute the costs of transporting electricity across borders (wheeling charges) can create friction and delay integration.

Economic Challenges

(e)              High infrastructure costs

Building the necessary transmission lines and other infrastructure for regional interconnection can be expensive, potentially straining national budgets and requiring significant investment.

(f)               Loss of revenue for domestic producers

Increased competition from regional electricity markets could lead to lower prices for domestic energy producers, potentially impacting their revenue and competitiveness. This challenge stems from the opportunities of liberalization of electricity trade. Fortunately, the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report promises and assures that, “The liberalisation of the electricity sector will be beneficial for all African nations, while the worries of particular countries might be best addressed with “special” treatment, for instance, temporary derogations.”[120]

(g)              Unreliable supply

Insufficient or unreliable power supply in participating countries can undermine the benefits of integration by limiting the availability of electricity. This aggravates poverty and economic exclusion since, “Studies on the socio-economic impact of inadequate electricity indicate that poor and rural dwellers in developing countries stand to lose the most.”[121]

Unviable tariffs can exacerbate this problem because low electricity tariffs have been identified as one of the major stumbling blocks by investors. Low electricity prices can be a double edged sword: while they are vital and necessary for encouraging consumer demand, conversely they discourage investment by rendering investing economically unbeneficial. Studies conducted in the SAPP, for example, concurred that power tariffs throughout the region are below the combined real cost of generation, transmission and distribution and therefore cannot sustain the power supply industry, provide the right signals for investment and encourage efficiency, hence necessitating urgent steps to move towards cost reflective levels to make the energy supply industry viable and encourage investment.[122]

Regulatory and Institutional Challenges

(h)              Lack of coordination

Successfully integrating power markets requires active cross-boundary coordination, including establishing clear legal frameworks, pricing mechanisms and dispute resolution mechanisms. This requires a central agency to coordinate the responsible actors and their activities, make real-time decisions and handle all the constraints faced – all while keeping the system in balance. Some power pools in Africa do not have such effective coordinating system operators to perform these crucial roles that as of necessity should be centralized.

(i)                Mismatching Regulatory frameworks

Inadequate or inconsistent regulations among participating countries create uncertainty and hinder investment in the integrated market. Indeed the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report recognizes “the establishment of an independent regulatory framework”[123] as one of the challenges of harmonizing interactions on electricity in African markets.

(j)               Political instability

Political instability or conflicts can disrupt power supply and make it difficult to maintain the reliability of the integrated grid. In fact, political instability has also been identified as one of the major stumbling blocks by investors.[124]

The World Bank Group stated that fragility, conflict and violence affect several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa which explains why this region has by far the largest number of countries with low electricity access – 16 of the top 20 countries in the world in terms of population without access are in Sub-Saharan Africa, 11 of which are affected by fragility, conflict and violence.[125]

Table 2 – Population Without Electricity Access, 2022: Top 20 Countries

No.	Country	Country Affected by Fragility, Conflict, and Violence (Yes or No)	Region	Population Without Electricity Access, 2022 (millions)
1.	Nigeria	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	86.3
2.	Congo, Dem. Rep.	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	77.7
3.	Ethiopia	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	55.5
4.	Tanzania	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	35.5
5.	Uganda	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	25.0
6.	Mozambique	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	22.0
7.	Niger	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	21.1
8.	Madagascar	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	18.9
9.	Angola	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	18.3
10.	Burkina Faso	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	18.3
11.	Malawi	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	17.5
12.	Sudan	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	17.2
13.	Chad	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	15.6
14.	Myanmar	Yes	East Asia and Pacific	14.2
15.	Kenya	No	Sub-Saharan Africa	13.0
16.	Korea, Dem. People's Rep.	No	East Asia and Pacific	11.8
17.	Pakistan	No	South Asia	11.8
18.	Burundi	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	11.6
19.	India	No	South Asia	11.3
20.	Mali	Yes	Sub-Saharan Africa	10.6

Source: World Bank Group Approach Paper, 19 February 2025.

(k)             Lack of political will to move on agreed projects

Some projects spend several decades in the offing due to hesitancy of authorities to see them to completion, which is particularly not attainable as far as private investors are concerned. These are generally speaking failed projects which Ikejemba, Mpuan, Schuur and Hillegersberg break down into several categories including shelved and stalled.[126]

Shelved projects, as the name suggests, are those projects that have been planned but not implemented. They are painstakingly planned and intensely hyped but never get implemented. A notable example is the Inga 3 Dam project in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) that has faced significant delays and challenges. It was originally conceived in the 1970s and a memorandum of understanding for its construction was first signed on 22 October 2004,[127] but has been repeatedly delayed and remains uncompleted, despite its potential to generate massive amounts of electricity.

Stalled projects are those which although take-off, get stalled and never reach completion. For these kinds of failed projects, implementation is incomplete. An example is Ghana's Osagyefo Barge project that was built in 1999 and delivered to Ghana in 2002, attempting to exploit and utilize domestic gas reserves for power generation, but has remained non-operational and not produced any power.

Other Challenges

(l)                Funding shortfalls

A lack of funding for national electrification plans and infrastructure upgrades can hinder the development of regional power markets. The AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report notes that, “Today, financing renewable energy projects in Africa is a complex endeavour and involves many different actors, with public investment and development finance institutions being key in enabling these kinds of projects.”[128] The crux of the problem is that some projects, especially those involving innovations and new technologies, are not properly remunerated by the market because they entail first-mover risks.[129]

(m)           Inadequate human capital

A shortage of skilled workers in the power sector can limit the ability to manage and maintain the integrated grid. A case in point is the SAPP that is significantly impacted by a shortage of skilled personnel, which is hindering its ability to address the region's electricity supply challenges, contributing to the region's ongoing electricity crisis, with many countries resorting to load shedding.[130]

(n)              Lack of transparency

Lack of transparency in regulatory processes and electricity pricing can erode trust and hinder participation. Electricity is often politicized leading to artificially set prices. Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams observed that,

In developing countries, the government plays a major role in building and pricing energy infrastructure, hence, the distribution and access to electricity are more often a political decision. Energy policy, therefore, remains a net political gain rather than efficiency and economic rationality. This is the case in developing countries where the government largely subsidizes the prices of energy. In sub-Saharan Africa, issues of energy are key agenda on political manifestos and campaigns. Politicians promise to reduce energy prices and to extend electrification, especially in rural areas. As a result, government inefficiencies extend to the energy sector especially as leadership appointments in the sector are done by the government.

It is argued that energy has become political due to the increasing demand (influenced by economic growth) for energy, especially in emerging economies. This results in an increased cost that encourages the government to subsidize the price in order to improve accessibility and affordability especially to the poor.[131]

(o)              Lengthy tendering procedures

Long tendering procedures in some states have been identified as one of the major stumbling blocks by investors.[132]

3.                  Infrastructure Security: Vandalism and its Impacts, Security Strategies and Policy Interventions.

Many countries suffer from vandalism of electricity infrastructure. It is a global problem affecting entire power transmission and distribution grids worldwide.[133] The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English describes the word vandalism as a “behaviour characteristic of vandals”;[134] and it defines a vandal as a “person who wilfully destroys works of art or public and private property, spoils the beauties of nature, etc.”[135] That is the literal sense of it. Aro Shittu Oluwakayode, Azmi Fatin Afiqah and Samsudin Salfarina, however, propound that, “Vandalism has multiple definitions and forms, varying across disciplines such as sociology, law, urban planning, and environmental studies. It typically involves property ownership, destructiveness, and intentionality. Understanding vandalism requires examining community and individual norms.”[136]

Hence from a legal perspective the term vandalism is defined by various law dictionaries as follows: “Willful or ignorant destruction of public or private property, esp. of artistic, architectural, or literary treasures”;[137] “The actions or attitudes of one who maliciously or ignorantly destroys or disfigures public or private property; active hostility to anything that is venerable or beautiful”;[138] “Wilful or malicious injury to, or the destruction of, property”;[139] “the wilful destruction of property”;[140] “Defacing or damaging property”;[141] and “The act of willfully destroying or damaging property.”[142]

From the foregoing description and definitions, I define infrastructure vandalism, in the context of electricity industry, as the wilful destruction of electricity equipment notably poles, power cables, pylons, transformers and transmission wires.

A.                Drivers and Manifestations of Vandalism

On 2 January 2023, the Chief Engineering and Technical Services Officer of UEDCL (the largest and government owned power distributor in Uganda), Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura issued a statement saying that vandalism of electrical infrastructure, particularly in developing countries, is mainly due to an avalanche of small groupings in form of contractors who are occasionally contracted to execute electricity infrastructure development and maintenance works but have no financial capacity to acquire all the business inputs, sufficient tools and materials that are required to sustain their businesses and which usually have to be imported because they are not available in the native country, hence they resort to illegal means of acquiring those inputs through illicit trading on the ‘black market’.[143]

Vandalism of electrical infrastructure manifests in many forms. The easiest way to identify them is to look at the laws prohibiting vandalism. In Uganda, it is a crime punishable with fines and imprisonment under the Electricity Act. Section 81 stipulates offences relating to electrical installations and equipment. Subsection (3) thereof prohibits any person from causing injury or damage to property in respect of any installation or equipment or part of it, by any rash or negligent act or omission. The designated punishment on conviction is a fine not exceeding thirty currency points or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, or both. One currency point is equivalent to twenty thousand shillings.[144] Subsection (4) prohibits any person from damaging any meter or other instrument used on or in connection with any licensed installation for recording the output or consumption of energy. Offenders are penalized with a fine not exceeding twenty currency points or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years, or both on conviction. Section 87 provides for damage to public lamps, etc., stating that, “Any person who, negligently and without lawful authority, extinguishes or damages any public lamp or defaces any post, bracket or other means of support of a public lamp commits an offence and is liable, on conviction, to a fine not exceeding twenty thousand currency points or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or both.” Section 88 is a multifaceted provision stating multiple offences for interfering with meters, works or public lamps. It imposes a fine not exceeding fifty thousand currency points or imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve years, or both as punishment upon conviction for the first time, and an enhanced punishment of a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand currency points or imprisonment for a term not exceeding fifteen years, or both upon subsequent conviction. Section 89 covers damage to supply lines, prohibiting any person from breaking, throwing down, causing to fall or damaging any supply line, post, pole or other equipment, installation or any part of it, connected with the supply of energy and imposes a punishment of a fine not exceeding twenty thousand currency points or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or both on conviction.

Infrastructure vandalism significantly impacts communities. For example, in Uganda, on 25 November 2021, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD) issued a statement on rampant cases of vandalism of power transmission and distribution infrastructure that were rampant then across the country. In the statement, the Ministry said that vandals compromise the reliability, continuity and stability of power supply by destroying out of malice segments of the electricity network especially pylons, wires/conductors, transmission infrastructure parts made of steel, aluminum wires, copper wires, transformers and transformer oils, poles, underground cables and related accessories, hence deliberately sabotaging the electricity access agenda that Government of Uganda embarked on to ensure electricity for all by 2030.[145]

In January 2023, UEDCL, through its Chief Engineering and Technical Services Officer, said that, “The real impact of the vandals includes direct loss of hard-sourced financial resources borrowed to do these networks, failure to achieve the Government main objective of national industrialisation driven by increased electricity access and usage (as stipulated in the National Development Plan, NDP III)” and painfully noted that, “… most of the vulnerable networks in Uganda have been established using borrowed funds and Government is still paying these huge debts whilst the networks are steadily being feasted on by the unscrupulous rogues.”[146] In 2024, the Chief Executive Officer of ERA, Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako said that vandalism and theft of electrical equipment across Uganda affected ERA’s deliberate effort to ensure that customers access reliable and quality power.[147]

The ensuing discussion analyzes specific impacts of vandalism and the necessary security measures and policy interventions to curb it.

B.                Impacts of Infrastructure Vandalism

Vandalism of electricity infrastructure immediately impacts those affected by either wholly cutting them off power supply or occasioning inadequacy in supply. Generally, lack of electricity or inadequate availability of it aggravates poverty, inequality and hampers government revenues.[148] Specifically, vandalism damages essential services, compromises national security, reduces quality of life and causes economic losses, as explained below.

1.                 Damage to Essential Services

Vandalism disrupts critical infrastructure and services like health, education, water, electricity and transportation, impacting daily life and potentially posing safety risks.[149] Consider, for instance, in Uganda, the collapse of five towers in Mbalala, Mukono district on the 132kV Owen falls – Lugogo transmission line on 20^th of September 2018 that led to a national power blackout lasting over three hours. There was further load shedding for a week in some parts of Kampala as the affected towers were being replaced.[150] Certainly, the lifestyles of the people affected must have been disrupted too.

2.                 Compromising National Security

Vandalism threatens the security of homes and poses safety risks, resulting in compromises to national security.[151]

3.                 Reduced Quality of Life

An environment of fear and insecurity is created when national security and personal safety are compromised, thus negatively impacting community well-being and social cohesion. There is reason to believe that the rampant vandalism experienced in Uganda – at least at its height in 2021 – was partly calculated to achieve these sinister objectives by way of economic sabotage because in some cases, electricity distribution lines were cut down without vandalizing anything.[152]

4.                 Increasing the Cost of Doing Business

Vandalism causes power outages/blackouts, which results in increasing the cost of doing business. For example, people will often resort to using generators to continue powering machines, and will therefore have to buy diesel or petrol to do that, which is very expensive.

5.                 Economic Losses

Damage caused by vandalism requires costly repairs and can lead to economic losses for individuals, governments and businesses. For example, the Government of Uganda lost over 260 billion shillings due to vandalism in 2020 and 2021 alone.[153] MEMD said that UETCL in particular spent on average over Shs 600 million (Six hundred million) per annum to repair vandalized towers on the existing lines across Uganda, and there was concern that given the then rate of vandalism and the growing size of the transmission lines, those costs are expected to increase tremendously unless the vice is contained. Electricity distribution lines were also not spared in the same period, as over 26 billion Uganda shillings was lost due to vandalism of distribution electricity networks across the country. Ultimately, this adversely affects the economy and national development.[154]

6.                 Increasing Project Development Costs and Extending Project Delivery Timelines

Vandalism affects construction services also, more so public works, by increasing project development costs and extending project delivery timelines. In Uganda, the energy ministry in 2021 reported that, “29 towers were badly vandalized in Tororo district on the 132kV Tororo – Lira transmission line under construction leading to thirteen towers collapsing on the ground. This has delayed delivery of the project and subsequently increased project costs noting that one tower for 132kV transmission line costs about USD10,000.”[155]

7.                 Undermining Investments

Vandalizing electricity infrastructure undermines investments. This concern was raised by the President of Uganda, H.E. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, in an X (formerly Twitter) post on 22 May 2025, at 17:03 hrs., in which he complained about individuals vandalizing electricity poles and causing power outages in areas of Nakasongola town. The President was there commissioning a cassava processing factory, aiming to produce cassava starch for use in making medicines, which he pointed out are expensive in Uganda due to our reliance on imported starch from India.

C.                Security Strategies Required to Curb Infrastructure Vandalism

First and foremost, it should be emphasized that securing electricity infrastructure is very advantageous because it increases electricity access in a number of ways, such as–

(a)              Increased reliability and system stability

A secure electricity system means it can withstand disruptions and recover quickly from outages, leading to a more reliable electricity supply, which encourages more people to connect to the grid, knowing they can rely on the power.

(b)              Reduced system losses and improved efficiency

Secure infrastructure minimizes theft and damage, reducing electricity losses and improving the efficiency of the system. These improvements allow the system to serve more users with the same amount of generated electricity, thus expanding access.

(c)              Enhanced investment and economic development

A secure electricity supply creates a more stable and predictable environment for businesses, encouraging investment and economic growth. This growth leads to increased demand for electricity, which can be met by a robust and secure grid, further expanding access.

(d)              Infrastructural investments and grid expansion

Secure infrastructure allows for more efficient grid planning and expansion, enabling access to remote areas and populations previously underserved. Secure systems can handle larger loads, allowing for the connection of new customers and the development of new energy-intensive industries.

(e)              Preventing power outages

Electricity infrastructure security helps prevent power outages and other disruptions. This saves power that would have otherwise been lost, hence bringing with it greater access.

Vandalism of electrical infrastructure has brought to the forefront the issue of infrastructure security because vandalism inhibits access to electricity, thus necessitating security strategies and policy interventions to curb it. The following are some of the proactive security measures that can be undertaken to curb infrastructure vandalism.

1.                 Physical Security

Install security cameras, motion-sensor lights and fencing to deter vandals and enhance surveillance. These and other related measures are crucial because, as noted by UEDCL, “The vice has become more pronounced in developing countries that lack technologies that can aid online network monitoring. More so, in the developing countries the networks are widespread in rural communities that have extremely poor access, with little or no security vigilance, and with no (or very little) community awareness of the need to protect and preserve the power infrastructure.”[156]

2.                 Lighting

Ensure adequate lighting to improve visibility and deter vandals.

3.                 Property Maintenance

Regularly maintain infrastructure to prevent it from becoming a target for vandals.

4.                 Community Involvement

Encourage community watch programs and public awareness campaigns to foster a sense of responsibility and ownership. In 2021, MEMD in Uganda undertook to work with local leadership, affected communities and the general public to stem cases of rampant vandalism by being vigilant and reporting any suspicious behavior on power networks near them to the nearest police station or the electricity utility company serving them.[157]

D.                Policy Interventions Required to Curb Infrastructure Vandalism

Unbelievable as it may sound, infrastructure vandalism can incidentally be curbed with great ease, given the right/appropriate policies in place. I submit that the policy interventions identified below will be very effective in curbing vandalism of electricity infrastructure.

1.                 Address root causes

Identify and address socioeconomic factors that may contribute to vandalism, such as poverty, unemployment and lack of opportunity. For instance, it is known that developing countries (that are in infant stages of industrialization) suffer from the challenges of unregulated scrap trading where scrap collection centers are established by businessmen to buy used items and resupply to factories that are able to reuse them as raw materials in their production processes.[158] In Uganda alone over 90% of the vandalised items end up in scrap collection centres and are used in smelting plants as raw materials,[159] pointing to desperation resulting from the aforementioned issues of poverty, unemployment and lack of opportunity.

2.                 Enforcing Laws

Ensure that anti-vandalism laws are effectively enforced and that vandals are held accountable for their actions. At the height of vandalism in 2021, the Government of Uganda revisited the Electricity Act to, among others, have stringent measures for anyone convicted of vandalizing electricity infrastructure. The amended Electricity Act criminalizes vandalism with even greater vigor, providing for more punitive measures for vandals. Below is a table giving a summary of offences and punishments before and after the amendments.

Table 3 – Offences and Punishments Before and After Amendments in the Law.

Item No.	Offence	Punishment Before Amendment	Punishment After Amendment
1.	Damage to public lamps, etc. – s. 87 (1).	Fine not exceeding five (5) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding one (1) year, or both.	Fine not exceeding twenty thousand (20,000) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding ten (10) years, or both.
2.	Interfering with meters, works or public lamps – s. 88.	None (offence not provided for).	On first conviction: fine not exceeding fifty thousand (50,000) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding twelve (12) years, or both. On subsequent conviction: fine not exceeding one hundred thousand (100,000) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding fifteen (15) years, or both.
3.	Damage to supply lines – s. 89.	Fine not exceeding thirty (30) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding three (3) years or both.	Fine not exceeding twenty thousand (20,000) currency points or imprisonment not exceeding ten (10) years, or both.

 

Again, one currency point is equivalent to twenty thousand shillings. The zeal with which the Act was amended should be replicated in enforcing its enhanced stipulations. Fortunately, there have already been convictions of and punishments imposed for offenders by courts of law, sending a clear message that acts of vandalism and unauthorized electrical installations will not be tolerated.[160]

3.                 Supporting Infrastructure Upgrades

Invest in modern, robust and resilient infrastructure to make it less vulnerable to vandalism. Initiatives in digitization and information and communication technology can help mitigate vandalism, for improved service delivery and sector efficiency in general.[161]

4.                 Promoting Community Partnerships

Foster collaboration between government agencies, community organizations and residents to address vandalism and improve infrastructure protection. It is community members who know the thugs busy vandalizing the networks and who they later sell the stolen materials to: either the local contractors or the scrap vending dealers.

On 22 October 2024, the Chief Executive Officer of ERA recognized the fact that the fight against vandalism requires great collaboration and encouraged all electricity consumers and the general public to be vigilant and report any suspicious people seen around electricity infrastructure.[162] But even earlier in 2021 at the height of infrastructure vandalism in Uganda, the line ministry came to the, “… realization that vandalizing electricity assets has a relationship with the unregulated scrap business in the country, and there is therefore need to work with Uganda Manufacturers Association to ensure regulation of the scrap industry.”[163]

Under this head can also be included the need to engage and involve the media fraternity, to disseminate to communities information and create awareness regarding vandalism of electricity infrastructure and how it negatively affects everybody.

4.                  Conclusion and Recommendations

In light of all the foregoing, I conclude this paper and recommend as hereunder.

A.                Conclusion

The theme for The Africa Electricity Symposium 2025, Powering Africa: Smart, Innovation and Energy Sustainability for Growth, is highly relevant to answering the key question of how to meet Africa’s future electricity demand with sustainable, economic and environmentally friendly energy sources that fundamentally shift power systems and create a new development pathway.[164] Implementing the AfSEM, entrenching regional power markets and ensuring infrastructure security are central to shaping the continent's current and future energy landscape, directly addressing critical needs and opportunities for sustainable development in Africa by, one, urgently expanding energy access to all Africans through smart grids that optimize energy flow, minimize losses and improve efficiency, leading to cost savings and more reliable power supply; two, promoting innovative solutions that encourage the development and adoption of home-grown energy solutions; and three, underscoring the importance of renewable energy sources and sustainable practices to support long-term development without compromising future generations: while cognizant of the need for integrated approaches that leverage technology and sustainable practices to achieve widespread, reliable and environmentally friendly energy access across Africa.

B.                 Recommendations

Much as access to electricity improves human development, recent literature nevertheless suggests that complementary programs may be instrumental in boosting the economic impacts of electrification.[165] To this end therefore, I make varied and cross-cutting recommendations in the hope that each reinforces the others so as to attain robust outcomes.

1.                  Ensure Reliability of Power Systems

The COVID-19 crisis highlighted the central role of electricity and determined that policymakers need to ensure that power systems remain reliable by maintaining and building up infrastructure, paying attention to the welfare of skilled personnel, the efficient use of existing infrastructure and cross-border trade.[166]

2.                  Exploit the Potential of Renewables

Africa should use its potential of renewables in solar, hydro, wind and geothermal,[167] add energy storage to its capacity since the strong growth of variable renewable energy sources in the generation mix will increase the demand for system flexibility, both in terms of supply and demand,[168] and accompany the expansion of generation capacity with a strong focus on transmission and distribution assets, their extension, densification and management.[169]

3.                  Preparing Ad-hoc Rules on Investment and Competition Policy

As already seen, the liberalization of electricity trade could lead to lower prices for domestic energy producers, potentially impacting their revenue and competitiveness, as a result of increased competition from regional electricity markets.

To overcome this, ad-hoc rules on investment and competition policy should be prepared, geared towards ensuring the well-functioning of the electricity sector, specifically addressing the worries of particular countries by providing for “special” treatment, for instance, temporary derogations.[170] This is in line with the governing principles of the AfCFTA notably the principal of flexibility and special and differential treatment.[171]

There is also an urgent need to ensure tariff viability by developing strategies to move towards cost reflective levels to make the energy supply industry viable and encourage investment because studies indicate that power tariffs are below the combined real cost of generation, transmission and distribution and therefore cannot sustain the power supply industry, provide the right signals for investment and encourage efficiency.[172] But as Munetsi Madakufamba cautions, the process of adjusting tariffs to make them cost reflective should be done at a gradual pace as such adjustment usually becomes a very sensitive issue often meeting with stiff political resistance as it can be a potential election minefield.[173]

4.                  Nominate and Support Projects of Shared Interest

Today, financing energy projects in Africa is a complex endeavour and involves many different actors, with public investment and development finance institutions being key in enabling these kinds of projects.[174] There is need to overcome the complexities encountered through workable strategies like cost-sharing and/or co-financing, streamlined permission, improved regulatory treatment on the basis of cost-benefit analyses and cost allocation, and increased transparency, which would mean better long-term financing.[175]

On this note therefore, I recommend the proposition of the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report that in coordination with AUDA-NEPAD, AU Member States and Regional Economic Communities through their specialised institutions should cooperate to nominate and support projects which present an overall net social benefit at the regional or continental levels and are therefore of shared interest in the sense that they promote the interconnection, interoperability and development of the national, regional and continental electricity networks; facilitate the development of less favoured regions; enhance the security of electricity supply; and contribute to the achievement of international goals and obligations binding AU and its member states, for example the UN Sustainable Development Goals.[176] Cooperation is important because some projects, especially those involving innovations and new technologies, can enhance electricity supply security but are not properly remunerated by the market because they entail first-mover risks.[177]

5.                  Engaging Stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement is crucial for establishing well interconnected and efficient national, regional, and continental electricity markets. I cannot put the point better than the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report:

The active participation and engagement of citizens is essential in building an electricity network for Africa. The establishment of a continent-wide list of African-interest projects should be preceded by inclusive, open and transparent processes at the national, regional and continental levels. It is crucial that civil society representatives, environmental organisations and any interested stakeholder participate in and contribute to the decision-making process. AU Member States will have different strategies for engaging with citizens. Best practices related to communication and public acceptance campaigns should be shared. The Electricity Forum might prove a good place to swap experiences and to discuss major issues related to infrastructure and to the removal of technical and regulatory barriers.[178]

6.                  Harmonization of Grid Systems

It is important to harmonize grid systems in order to overcome some challenges like incompatibility of grid systems and inadequate or inconsistent regulations among participating countries. As said in the AfSEM Policy Paper and Roadmap 2040 report,

To facilitate the integration and efficiency of the AfSEM, a set of rules and network codes should be agreed upon. These should cover connectivity, operation, and market rules. The rules need to be able to enhance the efficient use of cross-border transmission capacities. Barriers against commercial transactions between different countries (and/or regions) ought to be removed.

Harmonisation between power exchanges, i.e. common Power Pool trading platforms, should be achieved. This requires compatibility in times of gate closures and formats of bids and offers. The electricity market will have to provide a basis for the development of day-ahead, intraday, forward, futures and derivatives markets, something which enables investors and operators to manage risks.

Rules on market operation, system operation and transmission regulation should be perfectly enforced for the smooth operation of the electricity market.[179]

Harmonization will also help in creating stable and consistent policy frameworks and improved coordination between actors.

7.                  Creating Regional Regulators to Coordinate

Independent regional regulators should be established to lay down related terms and procedures, provide approvals for the cross-border trade, plan the adequate transmission systems in coordination with the regional pool participating countries, coordinate activities, handle constraints faced and serve as a dispute settlement mechanism, while keeping the system in balance. The need for coordination by regional regulators is exemplified by the impacts of either the lack or absence of them. Thus, it is now common knowledge that,

In many low-access countries, grid and off-grid rollouts have been delayed because of a cycle of weak financial performance of many power utility companies and inadequate regulatory frameworks to attract private sector investors. Electricity access in many countries has stalled or advanced at an unpredictable pace on account of shortcomings in one or more sector readiness conditions, such as national commitment to scale toward universal access, governance, institutional framework, capacity, sustained follow-through, accountability, on-and-off rather than programmatic finance, and insufficient regulatory frameworks to support bankable energy access projects for the private sector to finance.[180]

Independent regional regulators, therefore, are needed to achieve harmonisation between power exchanges i.e. common power pool trading platforms, which requires compatibility in times of gate closures and formats of bids and offers; and then enabling investors and operators to manage risks by providing a basis for the development of day-ahead, intraday, forward, futures and derivatives markets.[181]

8.                  Eradicating Poverty and Improving Livelihood

The World Bank Group approach paper says that,

Low demand is a consequence of households’ financial constraints, but providing reliable and affordable electricity – together with other enabling factors, such as road infrastructure and access to finance – helps make it possible for them to use energy to generate additional income. Household additional income increases affordability and boosts electricity demand. As operators’ business models become financially sustainable and electricity tariffs increasingly reflect the cost of producing electricity, companies have the resources to invest in operations and maintenance, thus ensuring reliable electricity. At the same time, governments have additional fiscal space to support other electricity access projects, offering hope for the future of these initiatives.[182]

Accordingly, if reliable electricity services with reasonable and affordable prices are to be the rule in electricity markets working in the interests of consumers,[183] then those consumers must in the first place be able to buy/demand the power availed. Their incomes must be enhanced since evidence from studies shows that increasing income levels increases access to electricity and so does the willingness to pay for clean and modern electricity supply.[184]

9.                  Improve Government Effectiveness and Efficiency

Government ineffectiveness hinders electricity access in many developing countries.[185] Since the overwhelming majority of African states are still developing countries,[186] this therefore is a fundamental issue in achieving energy justice on the continent. In their study, Sarkodie and Adams learnt that in developing countries, the government plays a major role in building and pricing energy infrastructure, hence, the distribution and access to electricity are more often a political decision.[187] Energy policy, therefore, remains a net political gain rather than efficiency and economic rationality. This is the case in developing countries where the government largely subsidizes the prices of energy. In sub-Saharan Africa, issues of energy are key agenda on political manifestos and campaigns. Politicians promise to reduce energy prices and to extend electrification, especially in rural areas. As a result, government inefficiencies extend to the energy sector especially as leadership appointments in the sector are done by the government.

The African Union’s aim of launching the AfSEM to interconnect all 55 African Union Member States through efficient, affordable and sustainable electricity market[188] will not be attained if ineffectiveness and inefficiencies in member states’ governments continue hindering electricity access to its intended beneficiaries, the African people.

10.             Improve the Political System Environment

Sarkodie and Adams found that improvements in the political environment in Africa is critical to ensuring access to a clean and modern electricity supply.[189] Government effort, in terms of energy sector infrastructure investment, development of localized energy technologies and long-term political commitment to energy policies will reduce financial and investment risk and provide an enabling environment that promotes access to electricity. At the regional level, power pool member states must work collectively towards creating a conducive environment that would make their respective regions attractive investment destinations for energy projects; and in so doing overcome the tendency to take the sovereign route of attempting to self-provide, rather than depending on supply from another country.[190]

Improving the political environment encompasses political feasibility (i.e. acceptance and support by stakeholders, constituencies, organizations and the compatibility with cultural norms and traditions), and administrative feasibility (i.e. compatibility with available indigenous information base, legal structure, administrative capacity and financial institutional capacity) leading to institutional feasibility (i.e. legitimacy of policy instrument, able to gain acceptance, able to be adopted and implemented).

Improving the political system environment will be beneficial in especially curtailing vandalism of electrical infrastructure because grievances will have been addressed.

REFERENCES

Books Referred to:

1.                 A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie and A.C. Gimson, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1983).

2.                 Amy Hackney Blackwell, The Essential Law Dictionary (2008).

1.                 Bryan A. Garner (Editor in Chief), Black's Law Dictionary (2004).

2.                 Elizabeth A. Martin, A Dictionary of Law (2003).

3.                 EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, Policy Paper and Roadmap - Towards a Single African Electricity Market: Roadmap 2040 (2021).

4.                 Gaylor Montmasson-Clair and Bhavna Deonarain, Regional Integration in Southern Africa: A Platform for Electricity Sustainability.

5.                 Gro Harlem Brundtland, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (1987).

6.                 International Energy Agency, Africa Energy Outlook 2022 (2023).

7.                 James A. Ballentine, Ballentine’s Law Dictionary, 3^rd ed.

8.                 P.H. Collin, Dictionary of Law (2004).

9.                 Rebecca M. Kulik, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2025).

Articles Referred to:

1.                  African Union Commission, ‘African Union Launches World’s Largest Single Electricity Market (AFSEM)’ (2021).

2.                  Aro Shittu Oluwakayode, Azmi Fatin Afiqah and Samsudin Salfarina, ‘The Impact of Property Crime on Public Infrastructure Development in the Nigerian Cities’ VIII International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (2024) VIII.

3.                  Bethelhem Abraham, ‘Regional Electricity Market under the AfCFTA: Prospects and Challenges for Ethiopia’ tralacBlog (2023).

4.                  Electricity Regulatory Authority, ‘Uganda Cracks Down on Power Line Vandalism to Ensure Public Safety and Economic Stability’ (25 September 2024).

5.                  Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, ‘An Account of Power Network Vandalism’ (2 January 2023).

6.                  Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako, ‘Welcome Remarks by the ERA Chief Executive Officer at the Public Hearing in Respect of Applications for Licenses by UEDCL’ (22 October 2024).

7.                  Eugene C.X. Ikejemba, Peter B. Mpuan, Peter C. Schuur and Jos Van Hillegersberg, ‘The empirical reality & sustainable management failures of renewable energy projects in Sub-Saharan Africa (part 1 of 2)’ 102 Renewable Energy (2017).

8.                  Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, ‘Statement on Vandalism of Electricity Infrastructure in the Country’ (2021).

9.                  Munetsi Madakufamba, ‘Expanding energy generation capacity in SADC: Challenges and Opportunities for Power Sector Infrastructure Development’, SOUTHERN AFRICA Today (2010) 1.

10.             Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, ‘Electricity access, human development index, governance and income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa’ 6 Energy Reports (2020).

11.             The African Climate Foundation, ‘Energy Transitions, Regional Electricity Markets and Industrialisation Prospects in Africa’ (2022).

12.             Vivian Chime, ‘African leaders seek investments in ailing grid infrastructure to achieve energy goals’ Climate Home News (29 January 2025).

13.             Wikipedia, ‘Electricity market’ (2025).

14.             Wikipedia, ‘Inga dams’ (2024).

15.             World Bank Group, ‘An Evaluation of the World Bank Group’s Support to Electricity Access in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2015–24’ (2025).

16.             Worldometer, ‘Africa Population’ (2025).

Legislations Referred to:

1.                  Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area.

2.                  The Electricity Act, Cap. 157 (Laws of Uganda, Revised Edition 2023).

3.                  United Nations, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, 25-27 September 2015.

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[1] Munetsi Madakufamba, ‘Expanding energy generation capacity in SADC: Challenges and Opportunities for Power Sector Infrastructure Development’, SOUTHERN AFRICA Today (2010) 1, at 7. Accessed online at https://sadc-energy.sardc.net/attachments/article/182/ETG_Policy_Brief_1.pdf, on 15 June 2025, at 01:40 hrs.

[2] United Nations, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, 25-27 September 2015, at 23.

[3] World Bank Group, ‘An Evaluation of the World Bank Group’s Support to Electricity Access in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2015–24’ (2025), at 3, para. 1.7. Accessed online at https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/sites/default/files/Data/reports/Ap_WBG_Elec_Africa_2015-24.pdf, on 2 June 2025, at 17:55 hrs.

[4] Ibid., at 1, para. 1.1. This definition is rich and pregnant with many technical terms that are frequently used in the present paper and should therefore be defined at the outset. I adopt the Bank Group’s definitions.

-                      End user is defined at page 26 of the paper as, “The ultimate consumer who requires energy for desired energy services at any locale—a household, productive enterprise, or community institution.”

-                      Energy services are defined at page 28 as, “Amenities that are delivered through the use of energy when converted into light, sound, heat (or cold), motion, signal, and so on. Energy services encompass lighting, cooking, air circulation, refrigeration, air conditioning, heating, communication, entertainment, computation, motive power, and so on.”

-                      Energy supply is defined at page 28 as, “The provision of energy regardless of the availability of end-use equipment.”

[5] Ibid., at 6, para. 2.2.

[6] The African Climate Foundation, ‘Energy Transitions, Regional Electricity Markets and Industrialisation Prospects in Africa’ (2022), at 2. Accessed online at https://africanclimatefoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/800644-ACF-05_Clean-energy-industrialisation-WEB.pdf, on 11 April 2025, at 08:28 hrs.

[7] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 1, para. 1.2.

[8] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, ‘Electricity access, human development index, governance and income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa’ 6 Energy Reports (2020), at 456. Accessed online at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484719310443, on 12 April 2025, at 23:44 hrs.

[9] Worldometer, ‘Africa Population’ (2025). Accessed online at https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/africa-population/, on 16 June 2025, at 16:31 hrs.

[10] International Energy Agency, Africa Energy Outlook 2022 (2023), at 15. Accessed online at https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/220b2862-33a6-47bd-81e9-00e586f4d384/AfricaEnergyOutlook2022.pdf, on 14 April 2025, at 20:39 hrs.

[11] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, Policy Paper and Roadmap - Towards a Single African Electricity Market: Roadmap 2040 (2021), at 7. Accessed online at https://cmpmwanga.nepad.org/files/Comms/Publications/AfSEM_Policy_Paper_and_Roadmap_2040_03122021.pdf, on 10 May 2025, at 21:39 hrs.

[12] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 27, defines energy poverty as, “The state of being deprived of certain energy services or not being able to use them in a healthy, convenient, and efficient manner, resulting in a level of energy consumption that is insufficient to support social and economic development. Although energy poverty can be measured using binary indicators (by specifying a minimum package of energy services or minimum amount of energy use), it is, in reality, a continuous variable encompassing deprivation of a range of energy services.”

[13] The African Climate Foundation, supra note 6.

[14] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 7.

[15] The African Climate Foundation, supra note 6.

[16] Ibid.

[17] Wikipedia, ‘Electricity market’ (2025). Accessed online at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_market, on 8 May 2025, at 11:59 hrs.

[18] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 9.

[19] African Union Commission, ‘African Union Launches World’s Largest Single Electricity Market (AFSEM)’ (2021), at 1. Accessed online at https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20210604/african-union-launches-worlds-largest-single-electricity-market-afsem#:~:text=Addis%20Ababa%2C%20Ethiopia%2C%204th%20June,affordable%2C%20and%20sustainable%20electricity%20market, on 17 April 2025, at 08:46 hrs.

[20] Ibid., at 3.

[21] Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area, Article 3. Accessed online at https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36437-treaty-consolidated_text_on_cfta_-_en.pdf, on 17 April 2025, at 08:54 hrs.

[22] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 8.

Renewable energy sources are hydroelectric, solar, wind and geothermal power, while non-renewable sources are coal, diesel, natural gas and uranium.

[23] Ibid., at 13.

[24] Ibid., at 8.

[25] Ibid., at 7.

[26] Ibid., at 17.

[27] See Preamble to and Art. 7 of the Protocol on Trade in Services of the AfCFTA.

[28] Bethelhem Abraham, ‘Regional Electricity Market under the AfCFTA: Prospects and Challenges for Ethiopia’ tralacBlog (2023). Accessed online at https://www.tralac.org/blog/article/16245.html, on 11 April 2025, at 09:20 hrs.

[29] African Union Commission, supra note 19, at 3.

[30] Ibid.

[31] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 9.

[32] See ibid.

[33] Ibid., at 6.

[34] Ibid., at 17.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Ibid.

[37] Ibid., at 8.

[38] The word consumer is defined in Uganda by section 2 of The Electricity Act, Cap. 157 (Laws of Uganda, Revised Edition 2023) as meaning, “any person supplied or entitled to be supplied with electrical energy for personal, industrial and commercial use”. Although the spirit of this paper covers all African jurisdictions/states, I adopt the Ugandan definition and apply it to all of Africa, for purposes of this paper.

[39] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 9.

[40] Ibid.

[41] Art. 4 (b) AfCFTA.

[42] Art. 3 (a) AfCFTA.

[43] Bethelhem Abraham, supra note 28.

[44] African Union Commission, supra note 19, at 3.

[45] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 15.

[46] Ibid., at 6.

[47] Section 9 (a) (i), Electricity Act of Uganda.

[48] Section 133, Electricity Act of Uganda.

[49] See section 134, Electricity Act of Uganda.

[50] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 13.

[51] Ibid., at 8.

[52] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[53] Ibid., at 8.

[54] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 8.

[55] Ibid., at 7.

[56] African Union Commission, supra note 19, at 3.

[57] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 16-17.

[58] Ibid., at 6.

[59] Ibid., at 17-18.

[60] Article 1 (t), AfCFTA.

[61] Bethelhem Abraham, supra note 28.

[62] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 10.

[63] Ibid.

[64] African Union Commission, supra note 19, at 2.

[65] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 9.

[66] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 8.

[67] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 13.

[68] Ibid., at 6.

[69] Ibid., at 13.

[70] Ibid., at 11.

[71] Ibid.

[72] Ibid.

[73] Ibid.

[74] Gro Harlem Brundtland et al., Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (1987).

[75] Ibid., at 16.

[76] United Nations, supra note 2.

[77] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 11.

[78] Ibid.

[79] Ibid.

[80] Ibid., at 12.

[81] Ibid., at 11-12.

[82] Ibid., at 15.

[83] Ibid.

[84] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 8.

[85] Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako, ‘Welcome Remarks by the ERA Chief Executive Officer at the Public Hearing in Respect of Applications for Licenses by UEDCL’ (22 October 2024), at 8, para 13.

[86] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 15.

[87] Ibid.

[88] The World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 26, defines availability as follows: “Availability of energy supply. An attribute of energy supply that implies the ability to draw energy when needed for the use of energy services. Availability is measured as the time and duration of supply. The availability of electricity can be measured as the time during the day (and night) when electricity is available or the total number of hours when electricity is available each day.” (Emphasis is in the original.)

[89] The World Bank Group, ibid., categorizes accessibility into two and defines it as hereunder:

Access to energy services. The ability of an end user to use energy services (such as lighting, phone charging, cooking, air circulation, refrigeration, air conditioning, heating, communication, entertainment, computation, motive power, and so on) that require an energy appliance and suitable energy supply.

Access to energy supply. The ability of an end user to use an energy supply that can be used for desired energy services. (Emphasis is in the original.)

[90] According to the World Bank Group, ibid.,

Affordability of energy supply. An attribute of energy supply that implies the ability of the end user to pay for energy needed for a defined package of energy consumption. Affordability encompasses one-time connection charges, energy charges, capacity charges, maintenance charges, and replacement charges. The affordability of energy access is a function of the defined package, the price of energy (including all the abovementioned charges), and the user’s income level. Energy supply is considered to be affordable when the cost of energy for a defined package of energy consumption does not exceed a normative percentage of the household income. (Emphasis is in the original.)

[91] This term is defined ibid., at 28, thus: “Reliability of energy supply. An attribute of energy supply that entails an absence of unpredictable outages of energy supply. It is measured by the frequency and length of unpredictable outages. (Emphasis is in the original.)

[92] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 16.

[93] Ibid.

[94] Ibid.

[95] Ibid.

[96] Ibid.

[97] Ibid.

[98] Ibid.

[99] Ibid.

[100] Ibid., at 10.

[101] Ibid., at 13.

[102] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 1-2, para. 1.4.

[103] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 10.

[104] African Union Commission, supra note 19, at 3.

[105] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11.

[106] Ibid., at 13.

[107] Ibid.

[108] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[109] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 10.

[110] Ibid., at 11.

[111] Ibid., at 14.

[112] Ibid., at 10.

[113] Ibid., at 13.

[114] Ibid.

[115] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[116] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 10.

[117] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 12.

[118] Ibid.

[119] Vivian Chime, ‘African leaders seek investments in ailing grid infrastructure to achieve energy goals’ Climate Home News (29 January 2025). Accessed online at https://www.climatechangenews.com/2025/01/29/african-leaders-seek-investments-in-ailing-grid-infrastructure-to-achieve-energy-goals/, on 15 June 2025, at 19:55 hrs.

[120] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 9.

[121] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[122] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[123] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 15.

[124] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[125] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 2, para. 1.5.

[126] Eugene C.X. Ikejemba, Peter B. Mpuan, Peter C. Schuur and Jos Van Hillegersberg, ‘The empirical reality & sustainable management failures of renewable energy projects in Sub-Saharan Africa (part 1 of 2)’ 102 Renewable Energy (2017), at 236. Accessed online at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148116309028, on 15 June 2025, at 11:31 hrs.

[127] Wikipedia, ‘Inga dams’ (2024). Accessed online at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inga_dams, on 15 June 2025, at 13:20 hrs.

[128] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 15.

[129] Ibid., at 14.

[130] Gaylor Montmasson-Clair and Bhavna Deonarain, Regional Integration in Southern Africa: A Platform for Electricity Sustainability. Accessed online at https://unctad.org/system/files/non-official-document/unda1617ld02_electricity_SA_en.pdf, on 16 June 2025, at 20:23 hrs.

[131] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[132] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[133] Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, ‘An Account of Power Network Vandalism’ (2 January 2023). Accessed online at https://www.uedcl.co.ug/an-account-of-power-network-vandalim/, on 13 April 2025, at 09:22 hrs.

[134] A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie and A.C. Gimson, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1983), at 968.

[135] Ibid.

[136] Aro Shittu Oluwakayode, Azmi Fatin Afiqah and Samsudin Salfarina, ‘The Impact of Property Crime on Public Infrastructure Development in the Nigerian Cities’ VIII IJRISS (2024) VIII, at 1153-1154. Accessed online at https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/Digital-Library/volume-8-issue-8/1153-1172.pdf, on 11 April 2025, at 09:48 hrs.

[137] Bryan A. Garner (Editor in Chief), Black's Law Dictionary (2004), at 4817.

[138] Ibid.

[139] James A. Ballentine, Ballentine’s Law Dictionary, 3^rd ed., at 1333.

[140] P.H. Collin, Dictionary of Law (2004), at 310.

[141] Elizabeth A. Martin, A Dictionary of Law (2003), at 523.

[142] Amy Hackney Blackwell, The Essential Law Dictionary (2008), at 524.

[143] Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, supra note 133.

[144] Schedule 1, Electricity Act of Uganda.

[145] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, ‘Statement on Vandalism of Electricity Infrastructure in the Country’ (2021). Accessed online at https://memd.go.ug/dalvan-museum-street-art-view-2/, on 11 April 2025, at 09:42 hrs.

[146] Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, supra note 133.

[147] Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako, supra note 85.

[148] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[149] The World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 29, defines safety as, “An attribute of energy supply that relates to the risk of injury from the energy supply.”

[150] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, supra note 145.

[151] Ibid.

[152] Ibid.

[153] Ibid.

[154] Ibid.

[155] Ibid.

[156] Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, supra note 133.

[157] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, supra note 145.

[158] Eng. Protaze Tibyakinura, supra note 133.

[159] Ibid.

[160] Electricity Regulatory Authority, ‘Uganda Cracks Down on Power Line Vandalism to Ensure Public Safety and Economic Stability’ (25 September 2024). Accessed online at https://www.era.go.ug/uganda-cracks-down-on-power-line-vandalism-to-ensure-public-safety-and-economic-stability/, on 16 June 2025, at 15:15 hrs.

[161] Eng. Ziria Tibalwa Waako, supra note 85, para. 16 (c).

[162] Ibid., para. 15.

[163] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development of Uganda, supra note 145.

[164] The African Climate Foundation, supra note 6.

[165] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 4.

[166] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 7.

[167] Ibid., at 8.

[168] Ibid.

[169] Ibid.

[170] Ibid., at 9.

[171] Art. 5 (d), AfCFTA.

[172] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.

[173] Ibid.

[174] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 10.

[175] Ibid., at 14.

[176] Ibid.

[177] Ibid.

[178] Ibid.

[179] Ibid., at 15.

[180] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 5, para. 1.13.

[181] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 15.

[182] World Bank Group, supra note 3, at 3, para. 1.9.

[183] EU Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) for Sustainable Energy, supra note 11, at 20.

[184] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[185] Ibid.

[186] The dictionary definition of the term developing countries as per Rebecca M. Kulik, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2025) is, “a country which, relative to other countries, has a lower average standard of living.” Visit https://www.britannica.com/money/developing-country, accessed on 13 April 2025, at 22:40 hrs; on the other hand, Google’s English dictionary defines a developing country as “a poor agricultural country that is seeking to become more advanced economically and socially.” See, Oxford Languages, available online at https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/.

[187] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 456.

[188] African Union Commission, supra note 19.

[189] Samuel Asumadu Sarkodie and Samuel Adams, supra note 8, at 460.

[190] Munetsi Madakufamba, supra note 1, at 9.