The Role of the United Nations in Coping with World Demographic Changes

Bakampa Brian Baryaguma
bakampasenior@gmail.com; www.huntedthinker.blogspot.ug

Abstract:

Demographic and socio-economic studies are useful for planning and evidence-based decision making. With this in mind, this essay analyses world demographic changes and the role of the United Nations in coping with those changes in the world.

It analyzes the changes and discusses them in four general categories namely, fertility rates, the family, life expectancy, and migration.

It emerges that fertility rates are declining, but notes that the decline is worse in developed countries, more than developing countries. The family institution is struggling, under attack from negative social, political, and economic circumstances. Social and filial bonds are waning, leading to rampant family disintegration. Life expectancy has increased globally, mainly due to advances in medicines and improvements in living standards that have led to drastic reductions in mortality rates. Migration propels individual prosperity, and national economic development.

The role of the United Nations in coping with these world demographic changes is to enable and/or engineer further momentum in harnessing the positive attributes of change, while remedying the negative effects. It is to facilitate efficient sexual and reproductive healthcare and rights; to strengthen family values, and enable reunification; to ensure secure and dignified ageing for all; and modernize immigration systems and procedures.

These should be done as urgently as possible, before it is too late to salvage the situation, at the expense of our very existence, and prosperity.

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THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS IN COPING WITH WORLD DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES

1.                  Introduction

A.                General Remarks

True to the adage that change is a fact of life, our world is constantly changing – in all ways: social, political, economic, and more. Change is unavoidable, for all of us: people, the natural environment, and human institutions.

Notable of the ongoing process of change are demographic changes, a term that literally denotes the study of statistics of births, deaths, diseases, etc, to show the condition of a community.[1] In short, demographic changes refer to dynamics in population of a given society (in this case, the world, as a whole), as indicated by shifts and/or variations in research data. World demography has been changing, and continues to change, rapidly; so much so that it is feared we may be heading for a demographic tsunami, or perfect demographic storm. These fears are not far-fetched: demographic changes have far-reaching implications on economic development, employment, income distribution, poverty and social protections, universal access to health care, education, housing, sanitation, water, food and energy. We must cope with the changes.

A key institution affected by the ongoing demographic changes is the United Nations (UN). The UN is a prominent and crucial actor in contemporary world affairs. As such therefore, its role in coping with world demographic changes should be well analyzed and understood.

B.                 About the United Nations

The UN is established under Chapter 1 of the Charter of the United Nations, 1945 (hereinafter ‘the UN Charter’). Article 1 thereof provides for the purposes of the UN. Briefly, they are:

(a)                to maintain international peace and security;

(b)               to develop friendly relations among nations, with a view to strengthen universal peace;

(c)                to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems; and

(d)               to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends.

This is the mandate or general roles of the United Nations.

Logo and flag of the United Nations.

The specific role of the UN in coping with world demographic changes can be traced in its third general role i.e. ‘To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character….’[2]

This is because, one, changes in world demography are problematic, in so far as their repercussions threaten international peace, security, and stability, the maintenance of which is a core mandate of the United Nations;[3] and two, these changes satisfy the economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian characteristic test, stated by the UN Charter, in so far as the changes affect the global economy, as well as the social and cultural fabric, thereby necessitating humanitarian intervention.

In fact, some countries, like Belarus, have already classified demographic changes as a national security issue, and instituted national demographic security programs to cope with them.[4]

2.                  World Demographic Changes and the Role of the UN in Coping with Them

Changes in global demography are varied, and multifaceted, owing to differences in the location and composition of the world population. For example, population dynamics in poor countries are different from rich countries; those in predominantly Christian countries are different from predominantly Islamic countries; and so on.

These structural differences automatically translate into variations in demographic changes, hence calling for different approaches in coping with them. Therefore, from the onset, it is clear that the UN cannot have a strait-jacket – one size fits all – approach in fulfilling its role.

Martynas A. Ycas identifies four broad demographic changes namely, fertility, the family, life expectancy, and migration.[5] I have adopted Martynas’ simplified analytical model (since it still holds true, 23 years later), and built on it with further, and current information detail.

A.                Fertility

Fertility refers to the reproductive performance of a woman in her reproductive life.[6] In simple terms, it means the number of children that women of child-bearing age are able to produce. World fertility rates decrease and increase, causing demographic imbalances.

In the past, women were having many children. In the early 1970s, for instance, women around the world had about four children each.[7]

Currently, world fertility rates are a mixed grill. In developing countries, fertility rates are high, and the population is growing.[8] These countries are characterized by young populations, in which majority of people are children (0 - 17 years),[9] and youths (15 - 24 years).[10]

In contrast, in developed countries, fertility rates are generally declining, and are experiencing slow population growth, or none whatsoever.[11] They are rapidly ageing, or even depopulating.[12]

Overall however, presently women are having very few children. Global average statistics show that in 2014, each woman had around two children.[13] Although also declining, the figures are much higher in developing countries, like Uganda, where fertility rates dropped from 7.1 children per woman in 1991, to 5.8 children per woman in 2014.[14]

 Midwives attending to a pregnant woman in Cambodia, whose fertility rate is 2.7. Fewer women are interested in producing children these days. Photo credit: UNFPA.

The role of the United Nations in coping with imbalanced fertility rates is to promote sexual reproductive health and rights. According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), ‘Good sexual and reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all matters relating to the reproductive system. It implies that people are able to have a satisfying and safe sex life, the capability to reproduce, and the freedom to decide if, when, and how often to do so.’[15] This includes voluntary family planning.

For developing countries with high fertility rates, the UN, in conjunction with member states, civil society and donors, should develop comprehensive efforts to ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health care, in as accessible and simple a manner as possible, by for instance, establishing one-stop-centers where women receive family planning, antenatal care, HIV testing and general health needs, at once. This calls for strengthening health systems, improving human resources, well-functioning logistics systems, and availability of commodities like condoms, for protection against unwanted pregnancies, and sexually transmitted diseases.[16] If this is not done, these societies may remain trapped in a poverty cycle, unable to achieve economic development, and the benefits it brings.

The same goes for developed countries with low fertility rates, but for them there must be added, more ad hoc policies and initiatives geared towards encouraging reproductive women to produce more children. Particular countries are taking steps to increase fertility rates. In Spain, there are radio advertisements calling upon women to have more children, and home and transport subsidies are being introduced; Italy is introducing monthly cash baby bonuses.[17] Parental leaves that make it easy to combine motherhood with working life can also be introduced, since they have performed well in Norway and Sweden.[18] Having small and manageable families has propelled these countries to economic development. But now it is clear that development alone is not useful, if there is no one to enjoy and sustain it. This necessitates producing more people.

More critically however, the issue of youth unemployment needs urgent attention, and redress, because research indicates that some countries like Portugal and Belarus are losing young people in thousands, who are migrating to other countries in search of better employment opportunities, at the risk of collapsing their home economies.[19] In 2015, global youth unemployment stood at 12.9%, and rose to 13.1% in 2016, one year later.[20]

 State of youth unemployment and poverty in 2016. Source: Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth.

From the above figure, it is clear that even many of the youth with jobs are actually poor. It means that the jobs they do are not decent, and fulfilling enough. In countries with high unemployment, this situation arouses inter-generational conflict, whereby young people accuse old people of overstaying in workplaces, thereby denying them jobs. In Uganda, some youth activists petitioned government to lower the retirement age, in order to create jobs for them. Economic bottlenecks should be removed so that economies can work for everyone involved.

B.                 The Family

Societies are founded on individuals, who are primarily grouped together in families.[21] The formation, growth, and dissolution of families, has evolved gradually, largely in an unpleasant manner – unfortunately.

In the past, families were firmly rooted and grounded. Right from marriage, for instance, a standard nuclear family of father, mother, and children, was arranged, organized, supervised, and mediated (in case of misunderstandings) by the wider, extended family superstructure, guided by overall social norms of the community in which the family belonged. This rigorous system of social supervision ensured firm and stable families, leading to strong and integrated societies.[22]

Fast forward: today, to a large extent, the communal system that provided social safety nets is no more. Individual tastes and preferences hold sway over competing and conflicting extended family and community standards. Binding social bonds and values are virtually gone.

Consequently, families today are formed loosely, disintegrate flimsily, weaken easily, and break-up very fast.[23] This exposes the family institution to unprecedented sustained attack, left-right-and-centre, mainly due to continued harsh changes in the social, economic, political, and cultural environments in which the family operates.

Hence, as Martynas says, there is, ‘A decreasing propensity towards early marriage (or any marriage at all), an increasing propensity toward divorce, delays in childbearing, and a markedly increased proportion of children born outside of marriage [that] has led to a substantial decrease in “conventional” nuclear families consisting of husband, wife, and children.’[24]

Plus, alternative family types are emerging, headed by single parents (usually mothers), and children, whereby children look after fellow children. Quite unfortunate! These are characterized with low income earnings, hence plunging the members into poverty, often chronic in nature.

 Child headed household in Aromorach, Gulu district, Uganda. The eldest girl, a child herself, takes over the role of bread winner, taking care of her siblings, and the needy grandmother. The girl cannot adequately provide family basic needs, eventually resulting into deep poverty. Many of them end up as street children, and girls getting pregnant and becoming young mothers. Photo credit: Comboni Samaritans.

To cope with these family demographic changes, the United Nations should promote, and safeguard traditional family values of unity, love, respect, and care for other members. This way, extended relatives will still be obliged to take on, and look after helpless orphans, instead of leaving them to fend for themselves in all kinds of hardships.

Ensuring family reunification, in these times of common family separation due to wars, and natural disasters, is perhaps the most vital role the UN can play. Family bonds are sacred. In situations where families are separated, leading to movement of some members, the UN and its specialized agencies should endeavor to reunite them, as much as possible. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) can partner with receiving states to ease travel restrictions, for the benefit of identified family members to reunite. For example, a recent BBC documentary found that the wars in the Middle East, like in Syria, have torn apart many families. That fortunately, some men (doubling as husbands and fathers) have obtained asylum and acquired refugee status in European countries like Germany. That unfortunately, after many years of failed attempts, they cannot reunite with their wives and children, because of prohibitive procedures, and blatant refusal by receiving states to accept them in. This subjects the men to psychological torture, and inhibits their social integration, and performance at their new workplaces, due to low concentration and boredom. The UNHCR can come in handy here.

C.                Life Expectancy

Life expectancy refers to longevity of people on earth i.e. how long a person lives, before dying. Previously, life expectancy was low, due to high death or mortality rates. Now that mortality levels are low, it is high. This has ushered in the ageing phenomenon, bringing with it opportunities and challenges, that the United Nations has to cope with.

1.                  Population Trends

Given increased life expectancy, the UN projects that world population will continue growing, except if fertility rates decline rapidly, as the graph below shows.

UNFPA global population projections.

In the past, human life was vulnerable and short, mainly characterized by many killer diseases, hunger and famine, and incessant fatal conflicts. All of these worked in unison to claim millions of lives across the globe. Mankind was subordinate to nature, yet nature is hostile to weaklings, but friendly to the strong. Nature was the biggest killer: brutal, unkind, and unforgiving.

Today, mankind has significantly tamed and conquered nature. It is no longer a mass killer. Consequently, nowadays people live very long lives. Global lifespans have increased from 64.8 years in the early 1990s, to 70 years today.[25] Human deaths have greatly reduced.

Unprecedented advances in science and technology have contributed greatly to high life expectancy. Scientific development has ushered in great inventions in medicines and vaccines, thereby eliminating several killer diseases. Technological growth has introduced safe work, favorable work environments, and user-friendly methods of work. Extremely hazardous work has been dealt away with. Improved healthcare has significantly reduced maternal mortality,[26] and infant mortality,[27] over the years. Improved global governance systems, and effective conflict resolution mechanisms, have reduced wars and other armed conflicts that claimed many lives especially, men’s. The prevailing peace and security in most parts of the globe has made it possible for people to live longer, peaceful, and happier lives, than ever before, although slightly higher mortality rates persist among the billions of people living in developing countries,[28] where life expectancy is slightly lower than the world average. Nevertheless, like in the rest of the world, fertility rates there remain higher, and haven’t fallen at the same pace as mortality levels.

2.                  The Ageing Phenomenon

The net effect of high life expectancy is that for once, more people are dying of old age, than say, killer diseases. It has ushered in the phenomenon of ageing, which is more pronounced in developed countries than least developed ones,[29] bringing with it both opportunities and challenges, that the United Nations should harness productively.

UNFPA points out very well the opportunities presented by ageing as follows:

The contributions of older persons to society are invaluable. Many such contributions cannot be measured in economic terms – such as caregiving, volunteering, and passing cultural traditions to younger generations. Older persons are also important as leaders, often playing a role in conflict resolution within families, in communities and even in emergency situations.[30]

It also points out the challenges as follows:

Yet they are also often vulnerable. They may have weak social support networks, lack income, or be subject to discrimination and abuse. Older women, in particular, are vulnerable to discrimination, social exclusion and denial of the right to inherit property. Women also tend to live longer than men, and may experience deepening poverty as they age.[31]

The cardinal role of the United Nations in coping with demographic changes occasioned by increased life expectancy, particularly ageing, is to ensure that people everywhere are able to age with security, dignity and their full rights. The UN should foster implementation of the 2002 Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, which, as stated by Article 1, aims ‘… to respond to the opportunities and challenges of population ageing … and to promote the development of a society for all ages.’[32]

 A beautiful family photo of the Mugesanis in Kenya, of four generations (i.e. grandmother, mother, daughters, and grandchildren) in one photo. Harmony in families is important for achieving the aspiration of the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, of 2002. Photo credit: Mugesani Maureen.

This can be done through technical, financial, or moral support, of age-friendly policies in member states, in the wider scheme of policy dialogue, capacity building, data collection, research and advocacy. There are good examples of such policies and ideas from the East African Community (EAC), in Uganda and Kenya.

In 2009, the Government of the Republic of Uganda, through the Ministry of Gender, Labor and Social Development (MGLSD) adopted a National Policy for Older Persons,[33] with key emphasis on Ageing with Security and Dignity. Under this policy framework, the Government has a pilot program dubbed Senior Citizens Grant under which elderly people are given monthly grants of Uganda shillings twenty five thousand only (Ugx 25,000/=, about USD 7$), to old people of 60 years and above.

 An excited elderly woman receives a Uganda government senior citizens grant. Photo credit: The Guardian.

The program is meant to ensure that older persons are protected from risks and repercussions of livelihood shocks, by overcoming constraints that impede the development of their productive capacities. It is essentially a social security program, designed to fill gaps left by deaths and diseases (especially HIV/AIDS) in the traditional extended family social support mechanisms, leaving many older people with grandchildren to fend for.[34] The program is having a big impact, empowering Uganda’s vulnerable older people, since they can now afford to buy a few basic necessities like salt, paraffin, and soap.

Another one is a non-governmental self-help project in Kenya, launched in 2007, that trains old women, most of whom are grandmothers, in self-defense skills of kung fu, karate, and taekwondo, in response to young bandits who were raping women three or four times their age.[35]

 Older women in Kenya undergoing kung fu self-defence training. Photo credit: AJ+.

This is a physical security program, but it also fits well into the objectives of the 2002 Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, of ensuring that these vulnerable women are able to age with security, dignity and their full rights, which includes inviolability of their persons.

The United Nations can support these programs, and promote similar initiatives globally.

D.                Migration

Migration means moving from one place to another, with a view of living there.[36] We live in a highly fluid and mobile world today. People are constantly on the move. Migration has therefore accelerated; and changed in character, with people moving in huge, organized groups.[37]

 Over 7000 Central American migrants walk along the highway in Tapachula, Mexico, near the border with Guatemala, on 21 October 2018, as they continue their journey to the US. This caravan has set the US against Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, with the former threatening to cut aid to the latter, accusing them of failing to stop the migrants’ advance. Photo credit: Reuters.

Millions of people are moving from one place to another, within their states (internal migration), or to other states (international migration). Most of the movement is from rural areas to urban areas i.e. urbanization. The year 2007 ushered in a situation where more people lived in urban areas than rural areas,[38] and this will continue.[39]

On the whole, migration is a positive force that should be encouraged. It improves migrant’s lives,[40] and spurs economic development at places of origin,[41] and destination;[42] although it has its own attendant challenges, like separating loved ones.[43] In Europe, immigration is slated to deter economic collapse, by bringing more capable and energetic people in the workplace.[44]

The cardinal role of the United Nations should be to integrate migration and development issues, for purposes of empowering people, and accelerating economic development. This can be achieved through partnering with member states and other international actors, to promote and encourage migration. The following can be specifically done jointly:

(a)          Combating trafficking

Human trafficking is a big threat, and hindrance to proper, decent, and beneficial migration. It wastes valuable human talent, depletes financial and time resources, and undermines economic growth. Trafficking should be resisted, and fought through all legal and socially acceptable ways. Traffickers should be arrested, prosecuted, and punished, in accordance with the law.

(b)          Preventing irregular migration

The movement of people should be regular, supervised, and legal. Irregular migration concerns are at the heart of the economic rift between the rich countries, and their poor counterparts. The rich countries are perceived and portrayed as not wanting to share some of their wealth with the poor ones. This, in fact, is not accurate, per se. For instance, Europe and America that are struggling to keep away huge numbers of illegal immigrants are not necessarily rejecting them for the sake of keeping them away. Rather, they want immigrants to enter their borders through proper channels, where they are vetted for quality, quantity, and security assurance. And it’s well within their rights and best interests to do so – as it is for everyone else.

(c)           Modernizing and strengthening immigration and customs services

Many countries’ immigration and customs systems are outdated, slow, and inefficient, unable to offer good quality services in clearing immigrants and their possessions. The UN can avail its financial and human resources, and diverse technical expertise, to upgrade these countries’ systems to world class standards, for greater efficiency and effective service delivery.

3.                  Conclusion

Demographic changes pose grave imbalances for the world. Left unchecked, they truly pose grave threats to the existence of humanity, and economic development.

At the heart of the mandate of the United Nations, as stipulated under the UN Charter, lies the implied fundamental mandate of preserving humanity, and prosperity of everyone on earth.

If the UN does everything within its power to fulfill the roles as stipulated in this essay, and more as its leadership deems fit, to cope with world demographic changes, then its stated and implied international mandate will be achieved.

These should be embarked upon urgently, before it’s too late to do anything meaningful and useful. Lest the world population will phase out, and we become extinct. Perhaps slowly, in the most unapparent manner, and unsuspectingly. But surely so – without a shadow of doubt.

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Notes and References

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[1] A. S. Hornby, A. P. Cowie, and A. C. Gimson, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1983),  at 232.

[2] Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Article 1(3) thereof.

[3] Ibid., Article 1(1). To this end, the UN Charter mandates the UN, ‘to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace …,’ which threats, I submit, include world demographic changes.

[4] Ryhor Astapenia, ‘Belarusian Demographic Trends: Rapid Ageing and Depopulation’, BelarusDigest (2014). Available at http://belarusdigest.com/story/belarusian-demographic-trends-rapid-ageing-and-depopulation-17533. Accessed on 24 October, 2018, at 18:41 GMT.

[5] Martynas A. Ycas, ‘The Challenge of the 21^st Century: Innovating and Adapting Social Security Systems to Economic, Social, and Demographic Changes in the English-Speaking Americas’, 57 SSB (1994) 4, at 4-6. But Martynas specifically focuses on immigration, not the wider subject of migration.

[6] Uganda Bureau of Statistics, The National Population and Housing Census 2014 – Main Report (2016), at 16.

[7] United Nations Population Fund, ‘World Population Trends’ (2017). Available at http://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends. (Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 18:44 GMT) This is the world average. But the figure was much higher in developing countries.

[8] Ibid. UNFPA observes that, ‘According to conservative projections, the population of the world’s least developed countries will double by 2050, and in some countries it will even triple.’

[9] The threshold given by Article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 (came into force on 2 September 1990), which defines a child as ‘… every human being below the age of eighteen years….’

[10] The definition of youth used by the United Nations, for statistical purposes. See, United Nations Youth, ‘Definition of Youth.’ Available at http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf. Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 18:47 GMT.

[11] United Nations Population Fund, supra note 6.

[12] Ashifa Kassam et all, ‘Europe needs many more babies to avert a population disaster,’ The Guardian (2015). Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/23/baby-crisis-europe-brink-depopulation-disaster. Accessed on 24 October, 2018, at 18:49 GMT. This paper learnt that in some provinces in Spain, ‘… for every baby born, more than two people die. And the ratio is moving closer to one to three,’ and notes that ‘Spain has one of the lowest fertility rates in the EU, with an average of 1.27 children born for every woman of childbearing age, compared to the EU average of 1.55. … The result is that, since 2012, Spain’s population has been shrinking.’

[13] United Nations Population Fund, supra, note 7.

[14] Uganda Bureau of Statistics, supra note 6.

[15] United Nations Population Fund, ‘Sexual & reproductive health’ (2016). Available at http://www.unfpa.org/sexual-reproductive-health. Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 18:51 GMT.

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ashifa Kassam, supra note 12.

[18] Ibid.

[19] Ryhor Astapenia, supra note 4.

[20] Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth, ‘Global Youth Unemployment is on the Rise Again’ (2016).

[21] There are other social groupings like workplaces, schools, religious settings, entertainment centers, rehabilitation facilities, informal social support networks like secret societies and gangs (which are usually criminal), and others, but these are secondary, since at the end of the day, everyone goes back to their point of origin i.e. the family.

[22] But, of course, it should be noted that this system also had its own peculiar challenges, flaws and weaknesses. For example, it tended to undermine and vitiate consent of marrying couples, which sometimes resulted into unequal unions, where usually the wife and eventual mother was disadvantaged and weak. This entrenched gender inequality hindered development. On the whole however, the communal system worked well enough, at least in this regard.

[23] Ryhor Astapenia, supra note 4, earmarks marriage and family as one of the causes of Belarus’ poor economic and development performance. He says that ‘Belarus remains a country of broken marriages, as about half of all families split up, and there is no reason to believe that this figure will change in the near future.’ Clearly, this subject demands serious attention.

[24] Martynas A. Ycas, supra, note 5, at 5.

[25] United Nations Population Fund, supra, note 7.

[26] This means women who die in child birth.

[27] This means children who die during, or soon after birth i.e. up to the age of five years.

[28] The World Bank Group, World Development Report 2009 – Reshaping Economic Geography (2010), at 1.

[29] United Nations Population Fund, ‘Ageing’ (2015). Available at http://www.unfpa.org/ageing. Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 18:54 GMT.

[30] Ibid.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Second World Assembly on Ageing, Political Declaration and Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, 2002.

[33] MGLSD, National Policy for Older Persons: Ageing with Security and Dignity (2009).

[34] Richard M. Kavuma, ‘Dignity, not poverty – the cash grants helping Uganda's older generation,’ The Guardian (2016). Available at https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/10/uganda-dignity-not-poverty-the-cash-grants-helping-older-generation. Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 18:58 GMT.

[35] Eleonor Botoman, ‘Meet the Kung-Fu Grandmas Of Kenya Who Are Fighting Back Against Rapists.’ Available at  http://bust.com/feminism/18473-kung-fu-grandmas.html. Accessed on 24 October 2018, at 19:01 GMT.

[36] A. S. Hornby, A. P. Cowioe, and A. C. Gimson, supra note 1, at 543.

[37] Consider for example, the millions of Africans, Arabs, and South Americans, currently flocking to Europe and United States of America, in boats or on foot, in search of better economic opportunities, and living conditions.

[38] United Nations Population Fund, supra, note 7.

[39] See, Ibid., where UNFPA projects that by 2050, 66% of global population will be living in cities.

[40] Jeni Klugman et al, Human Development Report, 2009 – Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development (2009), at 2, states that, ‘Most migrants, internal and international, reap gains in the form of higher incomes, better access to education and health, and improved prospects for their children.’

[41] Ibid., at 71-82. The most notable reward is in form of financial remittances, which, as the report notes, at page 72, ‘… are vital in improving the livelihoods of millions of people in developing countries. … An important function of remittances is to diversify sources of income and to cushion families against setbacks such as illness or larger shocks caused by economic downturns, political conflicts or climatic vagaries.’

[42] Ibid., at 83-92. The report notes, at page 84, that, ‘Migrants can bring broader economic benefits [like taxes, and job creation], including higher rates of innovation.’

[43] The report notes, Ibid., at 72, that, ‘Despite these financial rewards, separation is typically a painful decision incurring high emotional costs for both the mover and those left behind.’

[44] Ashifa Kassam, supra note 12. It is estimated that Germany, will need an average of 533,000 immigrants every year, to offset shortages in the workplace, which the UN predicts will drop by 7% to just 54% by 2030.